
Class 
Book. 



L32"* J 



•<? 



o 



& /C / 



Copyright^! . 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



THE ART 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



A TEXT-BOOK FOR NORMAL SCHOOLS AND NOR- 
MAL INSTITUTES, AND A REFERENCE 
BOOK FOR TEACHERS, SCHOOL 
OFFICERS, AND PARENTS. 



BY 



JT BALDWIN, 

PltESIPENT OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KIRKSVIIXE, MISSOTTEI. 



NEW YORK: 
D. APPLETOI AND COMPANY, 

1, 3, and 5 BOND STREET. 
1881. 



1> 






l^y 



COPYKIGIIT BY 

J. BALDWIN 

1881. 



^ 



" 



TO THE 

GEEAT BEOTHEEHOOD OF TEACHEES 

THIS HUMBLE CONTRIBUTION 

TO OUR EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE 

IS RESPECTFULLY 



Elementary 
Psychology 
and Science 
of Human 
Culture. 
Volume I. 
{In Prepara- 
tion.) 



I. 
II. 

in.—: 

IV.— 

v.— 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX, 

X. 



The Mind and the Body, and Com- 
parative Psychology. 

Psychology and Culture of the Pre- 
sentative Faculties. 

Psychology and Culture of the Repre- 
sentative Faculties. 

Psychology and Culture of the Think- 
ing Faculties. 

Psychology and Culture of the Feel- 
ings. 

Psychology and Culture of the Will 
Powers. 

Philosophy of Education. 

History of Education. 

Theories and Methods of Great Edu- 
cators. 

Habits of Eminent Thinkers. 



The Art of 

School 

Management. 

Volume II. 



I. — Educational Instrumentalities. 
II. — School Organization. 
III. — School Government. 
IV. — Courses of Study and Programmes. 
V. — Study and Teaching. 
VI. — Class Management. 
VII. — Examinations, Eecords, and Gradua- 
tion. 
VIII. — Professional Education. 
IX. — System and Progress in Education. 
X. — Graded Schools. 



TnE Art of 
Teaching. 
Volume III. 
{In Prepara- 
tion.) 



I, 
II, 

III, 

IV, 

V. 

VI. 

VII.— 

VIII. 

IX, 

X, 



I 



Educational Principles. 

Educational Periods, Processes, and 

Methods. 
Class Methods. 
Art of Questioning. 
Kindergarten Methods. 
Methods of Teaching Elementary 

Branches. 
Methods of Teaching the Higher 

Branches. 
Teaching Power. 
Practices of Eminent Educators. 
History of Educational Movements 

and Methods. 



PBEFAOE. 



The supreme object of this work is to aid the 
noble men and women who are bravely struggling to 
become educational artists. Principles, illustrations, and 
results are freely given. With these aids, each teacher is 
left to work out the problem of school management for 
himself in his own way. It is proposed to discuss the 
educational work as outlined on the preceding page, in 
three convenient volumes. 

In "Elementary Psychology and Science of 
Human Culture " the body and the mind are studied 
from the educational standpoint. Practical psychology 
is made the basis of the philosophy of education. The 
laws of culture are evolved inductively. The time, the 
means, the laws, and the methods of cultivating each 
faculty of the soul are carefully considered. The aim is 
to lay a solid foundation for artistic teaching and effective 
school management. 

In "The Art of Teaching," teaching is considered 
as an art, based on the science of human culture. The 
results worked out by the masters are made to illuminate 



yi PREFACE. 

every page. To produce a work intensely practical, and 
at the same time strictly philosophical, has been the 
author's great aim. 

In "The Aet of School Management" the aim 
has been to develop a system of control in harmony with 
the new education. The whole subject of organizing, 
governing, and conducting schools is carefully considered 
from the standpoint of the child. No effort has been 
spared to prepare a work worthy of a permanent place on 
the teacher's desk, and in the library of every school offi- 
cer. The aim has been to produce a work abounding in 
plain, practical, suggestive lessons, rather than elabo- 
rate theories. This volume has literally grown during a 
quarter of a century spent in teaching teachers. The 
plans and methods here presented have been worked out 
in the school-room, and thoroughly tested in hundreds of 
schools. They will, it is hoped, be found eminently prac- 
tical. The subject-matter has been presented and dis- 
cussed year after year in normal classes and teachers' 
institutes, and in educational journals. The author has 
earnestly labored to produce a professional work fit for— 

1. A text-book in normal schools ; 

2. A text-book in normal institutes ; 

3. A teacher's hand-book ; 

4. A reference-book for school officers and parents. 

Each chapter has been written with these objects dis- 
tinctly in view. The plan of the work is believed to be 
original. In the development of various topics, I have 



PREFACE. yii 

been assisted by many educators. I acknowledge my 
deep indebtedness to my fellow teachers, to educational 
journals, and to our rapidly developing educational liter- 
ature. The matter has been used so often as to seem my 
own ; in many cases in which credit doubtless should 
be given to others, I have found it impossible to recall 
the original sources of information. This general ac- 
knowledgment is due to the reader, as well as to the 
many authors whose thoughts have thus been used. 

Sincere thanks are returned to all who have aided 
directly or indirectly in the production of " The Art of 
School Management." It is but just to say that I am 
indebted to President B. S. Potter, now of the Shippens- 
burg Normal School, Pennsylvania, and to Mrs. M. M. 
(Thomas) Raymond, now of Paterson, New Jersey, for 
valuable and extended assistance. President G-. L. Os- 
borne, of the State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mis- 
souri, furnishes Part VII., on Graded Schools ; and 
President 0. H. Butcher, of the State Normal School, 
Cape Girardeau, Missouri, contributes the chapter on 
School Hygiene. I am also indebted to them for valuable 
suggestions and aid throughout the work. Due credit is 
given to others in the proper place. 

Teaching is the Art of Human Development. This art 
of arts is based on the thought and experience of the race. 
Eternal principles underlie all educational processes. To 
elevate teaching from the position of a vacillating em- 
piricism to that of the chief of arts is the world's supreme 



viii PREFACE. 

work. School management is essentially an art based on 
the science of education. " Every step in this art, if it 
is a right step, is only the application of a general princi- 
ple to a particular case." Principles developed elsewhere 
are here restated, illustrated, and applied. Thus, it is 
hoped, as much definiteness and certainty may be secured 
in the art of school management as in any other art. As 
an humble contribution to this end, this volume is sub- 
mitted to the great brotherhood of teachers. 

J. Baldwin. 

State Normal School, Kirksville, Missouri, July, 1880. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction ....... 

1. School Management defined. 2. Based on the Science of Education. 
8. Good Management conditions Good Teaching. 4. Self-Government 
the Central Idea. 5. Ability and Skill demanded. 6. Originality and 
Independence. 7. Divisions. 8. Plan. 



15 



PART FIRST. 

EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

I. School Grounds .... 

1. Location. 2. Plan. 8. Improving and Preserving. 4. Advantages 
5. Glad Memory. 

II. School Buildings ... 

1. History of School Architecture. 2. School Architects. 8. Beauty as 
well as Utility. 4. Size and Proportions. 5. Ground Plan. 6. Eleva- 
tions. 7. Heating and Ventilation. 8. Light. 9. Out-Buildings. 10. 
Library and Cloak Rooms. 11. Desks. 12. Pictures. 18. Cost. 14, 
Valuable Hints. 

III. School Apparatus ..... 

1. The Blackboard. 2. Beading Apparatus. 8. Mathematical Appara 
tus. 4. Geographical Apparatus. 5. Cabinet. 6. Chemical and Philo 
Bophical Apparatus. 7. Cost. 8. Use. 9. How to Procure. 

IV. Kindergarten Gifts ..... 

1. Definition. 2. Kindergarten in Towns. 8. Kindergarten in Ele 
mentary Schools. 4. How to Use the Gifts. 5. Kindergarten in Nor- 
mal Institutes. 6. Caution. 

V. District School Libraries . 

1. Choice of Books. 2. Value of Library. 8. How to Use the Library, 

4. How to Sustain the Library. 5. Management. 

VI. School Text-Books .... 

1. Characteristics. 2. Use and Abuse. 8. Uniformity. 

5. Will any Book do? 6. Plan. 7. Valuable Thoughts. 
VII. School Hygiene .... 

1. Definition. 2. Position. 8. Ventilation. 4. Light 



4. Adoption 



6. Play. 7. Habits. 8. Punishments. 9. How to keep well". 



gevity. 
Health 



11. Laws of Health. 12. Tobacco. 
14. Earnest Words to Teachers. 



Exercise 

10. Lon 

18. Methods of Promoting 



21 
27 



42 



49 



53 



57 



63 



II. 



PART SECOND. 

SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

Preparatory Work . 

1. Teachers 1 Qualifications. 2. Securing Positions. 8. Contract. 4. 
Plan of Campaign. 

School Tactics— Principles — A System 

1. Calling School. 2. Dismissing School. 3. Calling Classes. 4. Dis- 
missing Classes. 5. Board Tactics. 6. Hand Tactics. 7. Concert Tac- 
tics. 8. Results. 



82 



90 



CONTENTS. 



III. School Classification . 

1. Principles. 2. Divisions In Ungraded Schools. 3. Temporary Classi- 
fication. 4. Permanent Classification. 5. Plan. 6. Illustration. 7. Sec- 
ond Illustration. 8. The Teacher classifies. 

IV. Opening Exercises — Seating and Recesses 

1. Opening Exercises. 2. Seating. 8. Recesses. 4. True Dignity. 

V. First Day of School . 

1. Be Early. 2. Welcome. 8. Follow Plan. 4. Be Self-possessed. 5. 
Special Directions. 

VI. Practical Suggestions by Practical Teachers 

1. Thorough Organization. 2. Definition. 3. Preparation for First 
Day. 4. Too much Machinery. 5. What I Saw. (j. Valuable Hints. 
7. Remarks. 



PAGE 
1UU 



110 



114 



118 



PART THIRD. 

SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

I. Elements of Governing Power .... 124 

1. System. 2. Energy. 3. Vigilance. 4. Will Power. 5. Self-Con- 
trol. 6. Confidence. 7. Power to Punish judiciously. 8. Culture. 9. 
Heart Power. 10. Teaching Power. 11. Managing Power. 

II. School Regulations . . . . .138 

1. Principles. 2. General Regulations. 8. Special Regulations. 4. 
-Adoption of Regulations. 5. Enforcement. 

III. Enforcement of Regulations .... 144 

1. Regularity. 2. Promptitude. 8. Deeorum. 4. Quiet. 5. Communi- 
cation. 6. Morality. 

IV. Principles Pertaining to School Punishments . 154 

1. Discipline Defined. 2. Punishment a Test. 8. Principles Stated. 
4. Bentham's Principles. 5. Governing Forces. 

V. Judicious and Injudicious Punishments . . 160 

1. Reproof. 2. Privation. 3. Deportment Marks. 4. Suspension. 5. 
Expulsion. 6. Injudicious Punishments. 

VI. Corporal Punishment . . . .174 

1. Conclusions Reached. 2. Infliction. 8. Treatment, after the Punish- 
ment. 4. Advocates. 5. Opponents. 6. Ground of Opposition. 

VII. Management of Individual Pupils . . . 182 

1. Detailed Reports. 2. Concrete Cases. 3. Suggestions. 4. Disor- 
derly Pupils. 5. Disorderly Schools. 6. Governing through the Class. 
7. Dull Pupils. 8. Hard Cases. 9. Successful Management. 

VIII. Conditions of Order — School Duties and Rights . 192 

1. Conditions of Order. 2. School Duties. 3. School Rights. 



PART FOURTH. 

COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

I. The Circle of Science ..... 205 

1. Mental Unit. 2. Matter and Spirit. 8. Inorganic World. 4. Organic 
World. 5. World of Man. 6. World of God. 

II. General Course of Study ..... 213 

1. Principles. 2. Psychological Basis. 8. Value of each Branch. 4. 
The School, the College, and tho University. 5. Classified Scheme 



CONTENTS. x i 

PAGE 

III. Coarse of Study for Elementary Schools . . 228 

1. Psychological Basis. 2. School Period. 3. School Studies —Outline 
and Explanations. 4. Advantages of Country Schools. 5. Disadvan- 
tages of Country Schools. 6. Possibilities of Country Schools. 7. Group- 
ing Country Schools. 8. Diplomas. 9. Elevation of Country Schools. 

IV. How to Use the Course of Study . . . 238 

1. D Division. 2. C Division. 3. B Division. 4. A Division. — Studies, 
Management, Remarks and Practical Suggestions. 

V. The Programme in Ungraded Schools . . . 255 

1. Principles. 2. Ideal Programme. 3. Oral Work. 4. The Gilchrist 
I deal Programme. 5. Michigan Programme. 6. The Phelps Ideal Pro- 
gramme. 7. New York Programme. 8. Programme in Graded Schools. 
9. Value of a Good Programme. 

VI. Position and Work of the High School . . 274 

1. Connecting Link. 2. Educational Work. 3. Circle of Science. 4. 
Village and Central High Schools. 5. Establishment. 6. Two Plans. 
7. Missing Link. 

PART FIFTH. 

STUDY AND TEACHING. 

I. Rules for Study ...... 287 

1. Interest. 2. Attention. 8. System. 4. Mastery. 5. Thought. 6. 
Knowledge. 7. Usage. 8. Mix. 

II. Conditions of Study ..... 291 

1. Physical. 2. Surroundings. 3. Struggle Alone. 4. Programme for 
Study. 

III. How to Study — Office of the Teacher . . . 293 

1. Clear Ideas. 2. Eead Carefullv. 3. Leading Features. 4. Details. 
5. Help in Studies. C. Outlines. '7. Hard Work. 

IV. Art of Securing Attention and Study . . 299 

1. Importance. 2. Unfavorable Conditions. 3. How not to Secure At- 
tention. 4. Rules for Securing and Cultivating Attention. 5. Unwise 
Incentives. 

V. Work for the Little Ones . . . . .308 

1. Pleasant Work. 2. Play. 8. Hand and Eye Culture. 4. Voice Cul- 
ture. 5. Body Culture. 6. Action and Culture. 

VI. Objective Points in Education . . . .313 

1. Well-directed Effort. 2. Mental Food. 8. Development and Culture. 

4. Moral Culture. 5. Ruinous Errors. 6. The Future. 

VII. Principles Pertaining to Education and Teaching . 316 

1. Fundamental Principles. 2. General Principles. 8. Psychological 
Principles. 4. Relating to the Order. 5. Relating to the Processes. 6. 
Relating to Methods. 

PART SIXTH. 

CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

I. Principles Relating to Class Management . . 324 

1. Attention. 2. Individual Work. 8. Own Language. 4. Self-Help. 

5. Assistance, fi. Honesty. 7. The Pupil does the Work. 8. Reach 
each Pupil. 9. Oral and Written. 10. System. 11. Heart in the Work. 

II. Lessons and Class Work . . . . 326 

1. Objects. 2. Length. 3. Lessens. 4. The Unprepared. 6. Forced 
Work. 



x ii CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

III. General Class Methods . . . . .331 

1. Socratic. 2. Topic and Question. 8. Discussion. 4. Conversation. 
5. Lecture. 

IV. Auxiliary Class Methods . ... 341 

1. Writing-. 2. Outline. 3. Reporting. 4. Reciprocal. 6. Concert. 

V. Questionable, Erroneous, and Antiquated Methods 344 

1 . Questionable Class Methods. 2. Erroneous Class Methods. 8. Anti- 
quated Class Methods.— Conditions of Progress. 

VI. Art of Questioning ...... 347 

1. Principles. 2. Statements. 8. Objects. 4. Class Questions. 5. Ex- 
amination Questions. 6. Objectionable Questions. 7. Questions to bo 
avoided. 8. Answers. 

VII. Golden Hints to Teachers . . . .351 

1. The Seven Laws of Teaching. 2. Preparation. 8. Rules for Pupils. 

4. Conditions of Success. 5. Secrets of Buccess. 6. Model School. 7. 
Effects of Method. 

PART SEVENTH. 

EXAMINATIONS, RECORDS, AND GRADUATION. 

I. School Examinations ..... 359 

1. Objects. 2. Plan. 3. When? 4. How? 5. Length. 6. For Pro- 
motion. 

II. Marking Grades . . . . . .363 

1. Objects. 2. Criteria. 8. Frequency. 4. Scale. 

III. School Records and Reports .... 367 

1. Form. 2. Value. 3. School Register. 4. Teachers' Reports. 5. Su- 
perintendents' Reports. 

IV. Graduation in Elementary Schools . . . 371 

1. Advantages. 2. Examinations. 8. Committee. 4. By Townships. 

5. Graduation Day. 8. Diploma. 7. Alumni. 8. Catalogue. 9. High 
School. 

PART EIGHTH. 

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

I. Professional Education of Teachers . . . 379 

1. Teaching and other Professions. 2. Necessity. 8. Child Mind. 4. 

Science of Education. 5. Artist. 6. Skill in School Management. 7. 
Incompetent Teachers. 8. Demand for Trained Teachers. 

II. Normal Schools . . . . .383 

1. Tho Scholastic Course. 2. Professional Course. 8. Three Classes of 
Teachers. 4. State Schools. 5. So-called Normal Schools. 

III. Management and Work of Normal Institutes . . 393 

1. Definition. 2. Revolution. 8. Prominent Factor. 4. Work. 5. Or- 
ganization. 6. Course of Study and Programme. 7. Instruction. 8. 
Work of Superintendent. 9. Institute Conductors. 10. The Plan Suit- 
able for all States. 

IV. Management of Township Institutes . . 405 

1. General Plan. 2. Conductors. 8. Programme. 4. Entertainments. 
5 Superintendent. 6. Pioneer Work. 7. Graded Schools. 

V. The Coming Teacher ..... 408 

1. His Position. 2. What he will Do. 8. How to Secure. 4. A Man 
among Men. 5. Mission. 



CONTENTS. xiii 



PART NINTH. 

SYSTEMATIC PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

I. Vital Educational Principles .... 419 

1. Truth Cosmic. 2. Education an Investment. 3. Educators direct. 
4. Meddling. 5. Adjustment. 

II. Perfection of School Systems .... 421 

1. State Board of Education. 2. Duties. 8. Plan of the Future. 4. The 
Commission Plan. 

III. Conditions of Educational Progress . . . 424 

1. Physical. 2. Higher Ideals. 8. Agitation. 4. Educational Platform. 

IV. Educational Supervision, Links County . . 430 

1. The County the Unit. 2. Name. 8. Status. 4. Employment. 5. 
Term. 6. Salaries. T. Qualifications. 8. Duties. 

V. Educational Waste ..... 441 

1. Inefficient Teachers. 2. Violations of Economic Law. 8. Self-Neglect 
by Teachers. 4. Abuse of Text-Books. 5. Cumbersome Machinery. 
6. Neglect of Moral Culture. 

VI. Educational Reforms ..... 447 

1. The Basis. 2. Conditions. 3. Teachers instead of Task -masters. 4. 
The Metric SyBtem. 5. The Spelling Reform. 6. Technical Education. 

PART TENTH. 

GRADED SCHOOLS. 

I. Educational Evolution ..... 463 

1. The Highest Good. 2. Division of Labor. 8. The School. 4. Group- 
ing. 5. Graded Schools. 

II. Graded School Systems ..... 467 

1. Officers. 2. Superintendent. 3. Teachers. 4. Organization in Largo 
Cities. 5. Organization in Small Cities and Villages. 

III. Duties of School Boards in Graded Schools . . 471 

1. Grounds and Buildings. 2. Furniture. 8. Apparatus and Works of 
Reference. 4. Regulations for Graded Schools. 5. Selection of Princi- 
pal and Assistants. 

IV. Course of Study and Programme . . . 475 

1. Courses defined. 2. Preparation of Courses for Graded Schools. 3. 

General Principles ; (1) Subjective Limits ; (2) Objective Limits. 4. 
Analysis of Course. 5. Exercises. 6. Programmes. 

V. Grades and Grading ..... 480 

1. Grades; (1) Number Arbitrary; (2) Methods of Determining. 2. 
Grading; (1) Organization ; (2) During Term. 8. Duties of School 
Board. 4. Duties of Principal. 5. Duties of Assistants. 

VI. Examinations, Records, and Reports . . 484 

1. Examinations. 2. Records. 3. Reports. 4. General Discussion of 
the Subject. 



TO TEAOHEES 



I submit a few suggestions with reference to the use 
of this work. 

I. Ik Noemal Institutes. — These institutes usually 
continue four weeks, giving time to carefully discuss 
three parts : thus the work will be completed in three 
years. The superintendent and conductor can select the 
parts most needed in the county for the first year ; the 
parts for succeeding years should be designated a year in 
advance. The instructor should supplement the book 
with his own views and illustrations. The text is de- 
signedly brief. 

II. In Noemal Schools. — About twenty weeks will 
be found necessary to complete the subject. The instruc- 
tor may pursue his own line of thought, and assign for 
study chapters corresponding. This method will be found 
much more effective than lectures alone. The work in 
professional classes may be made as systematic and as 
thorough as the work in arithmetic. In some way, the^ 
pupil-teacher should also be trained to apply these lessons 
in practice. 

III. Foe Study and Reference. — Many of our best 
teachers work up to art. They study hard, observe close- 
ly, use their common sense, and become their own critics. 
This worthy class of teachers will, I trust, find the pres- 
ent work largely helpful. 



TEE ART OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



INTRODUCTION. 

I. School Management is the Art of so direct- 
ing School Affairs as to produce System, Order, 
and Efficiency. — It embraces school instrumentalities, 
and the entire control and direction of the school work. 
This art is sometimes called school economy, sometimes 
school discipline, and sometimes school government. 
These titles are evidently too narrow. The art of school 
management comprehends the entire subject, and is at 
the same time specific. 

II. The Art of School Management is based on 
the Science of Education. — Sound principles under- 
lie correct practice. Rational management is adapted to 
child-nature. The art of school management is the wise 
adjustment of educational forces and instrumentalities. 

III. Efficient Teaching is conditioned by Good 
Management. — Order, economy, system, well-directed 
effort, are results of wise management. "Without atten- 
tion, interest, and wisely-directed effort, education is 
impossible. 

IV. Self-Government is the Central Idea in 
School Management. — This art is developed from the 



16 INTRODUCTION. 

standpoint of the self-determining child. School-grounds 
are planned, buildings constructed, furniture and appara- 
tus invented, books created, and the best teachers sus- 
tained, in order to stimulate the young to self-exertion, 
and to train them to the habit of self-control. All edu- 
cation is self -education. True government is from within. 

V. Ability and Skill aee demanded in School 
Management. — To organize and manage educational 
forces and instrumentalities require as much generalship 
and executive ability as to command armies or govern 
states. Ten teachers fail from lack of management where 
one fails from any other cause. We need for our teach- 
ers persons of ability, thorough culture, and wide expe- 
rience. The weak and inexperienced may keep school, 
but the art of school management is possible only in the 
hands of able and mature men and women. 

VI. Originality and Independence character- 
ize the Artist. — All right methods necessarily conform 
to principles ; but, in details, infinite variety is possible. 
A true teacher is an artist, not an artisan. He forms his 
own plans. He invents. He adapts. To him, concrete 
cases and the plans and practices of others are merely 
suggestive. He matures his own ideals, and in his own 
way executes his own plans. The mere imitator and plod- 
der is decidedly out of place in the school-room. 

VII. Divisions. — The art of school management 
seems naturally to embrace ten leading topics : school in- 
strumentalities, school organization, school government, 
courses of study and programmes, study, class manage- 
ment, graded-school management, examinations and re- 
ports, professional education of teachers, and school sys- 
tems. This division of the subject is deemed logical, and 
it will be found convenient both for study and for refer- 



INTRODUCTION. If 

ence. Under tliese heads are grouped such minor topics 
as are thought to be of most practical value. 

VIII. The Countey School. — The elevation of the 
schools of the rural districts is undoubtedly the most im- 
portant field of activity now open to the statesman and 
philanthropist. Cities are moving forward grandly in 
the educational work ; but the progress in the rural dis- 
tricts is far from satisfactory. To place ungraded and 
small graded schools in line of march with city schools, 
and thus keep the educational work abreast throughout 
the country, is deemed to be preeminently important. To 
this mission the art of school management is largely 
devoted. 

IX. The Plan". — The style is intended to be simple 
and concise. Avoiding untried theories and elaborate dis- 
cussions, the author has labored to present briefly and 
in convenient form the great results of the educational 
thought and experience of the race. Each paragraph, it 
is hoped, will be found to breathe the spirit of the fresh- 
est thought and best practice of the living present. The 
production of this volume has required a quarter of a cen- 
tury of hard work. The author fondly hopes to devote 
another quarter of a century to rendering it more and 
more worthy ; a fit work to aid in leading the great for- 
ward movements of the new education. 



PART I. 
ED UCA TIONAL INSTR JIMENTALITIES. 



CHAPTER I.— School-Gkounds. 
II. — School-Buildings. 
III. — School Appakatus. 

IV. — KlNDEEGAETEN GlFTS. 
V. — DlSTEIOT-SOHOOL LlBEAET. 

VI. — School Text-Books. 
VII. — School Hygiene. 



PART FIRST. 

EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 



Educational instrumentalities are the appliances 
used in human development. The boundless stores of na- 
ture, the varied achievements of man, and the manifold 
influences of society are all educational instrumentalities. 
The apt teacher commands these varied resources, and 
uses them for educational purposes. Suitable educational 
appliances double the efficiency of the teacher. Only 
such instrumentalities as pertain to the school and its ap- 
pointments need be here considered. To provide the 
most favorable surroundings and the most approved edu- 
cational instrumentalities is the highest privilege as 
well as the sacred duty of parents, school officers, and 
teachers. 



OHAPTEE I. 

SCHOOL-GEOUNDS. 



The school-building with its surroundings represents 
the average culture of the community. Intelligent com- 
munities embody in their school-grounds and school- 



22 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

houses the conviction that nothing is too good for chil- 
dren. 

I. Location" of Grounds. — The grounds should be : 

1. Central and Accessible. The site must be acces- 
sible, and should be as nearly as possible central. The 
center of population, as well as the geographical center, 
needs to be considered. 

2. Commodious and Suitable. Commodious school- 
grounds, adapted* to educational ends, pay large divi- 
dends. Cities expend vast sums to secure large school- 
yards. Towns and villages set apart from two to ten acres 
for school-purposes. In the rural districts, not less than 
from two to five acres should be consecrated to child-cul- 
ture. To restrict a country school to half an acre is a 
mistake and a misfortune. 

3. Healthful and Beautiful. Science has shed a flood 
of light on sanitary measures. Inexcusable stupidity or 
obstinacy alone can explain the selection of an unhealthy 
site for a school-building. Healthfulness depends (1), on 
the nature of the soil ; (2), on the elevation ; (3), on the 
drainage ; (4), on remoteness from marshy ground and 
stagnant water. A sandy soil and a southern slope are 
every way desirable. Healthfulness and beauty are ex- 
ceedingly important considerations. 

II. Plan of Grounds. 

1. Each District should have its oiun Plan. Given 
plans are suggestive, but are never to be copied. Indi- 
viduality and originality should characterize the educa- 
tional nurseries of the race. Here is an excellent field for 
invention and taste. The school-building and grounds 
should represent the highest culture of the neighborhood. 
It is safe to judge communities by their school-houses 
and churches, and the surroundings. 



SCHOOL-GKOUNDS. 



23 






mi 



m 



fefk 









C 



L I L / L 






XI JsH 



^ 




#t<s& 



s* 



@=i 



^^ 



24 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

2. Grass and Floioer Plots should decorate all school- 
grounds, however small. In no other way can so much 
be done at so little cost to foster aesthetic culture. These 
plots should be largely in front of the building, if the 
grounds will permit, and should be so arranged as to be 
easily kept in order. 

3. The Well is troublesome to locate. It looks well to 
place it in front of the building, in a neat rustic arbor. 
Between the walks to the well and the building, flower- 
plots may be arranged. Two wells, one in the private 
play-grounds for the girls, the other in the boys' private 
play-grounds, give the best satisfaction. 

4. The Play-grounds are primary in the plan. In 
front of the building and the evergreen hedges are the 
common play-grounds. Here the boys and girls freely 
intermingle. Here, under the eye of the teacher, refine- 
ment and social culture receive special attention. On 
one side and in the rear of the building are private play- 
grounds for the girls, and on the other side are the boys' 
private grounds. Play-grounds should be supplied with 
such implements and incentives as tend to cultivate grace- 
fulness and give the fullest physical development. In the 
education of children, play is an important factor. When 
we learn to lead children through play up to work, we 
shall revolutionize our school processes, and make child- 
hood truly the. happy seed-time of life. 

5. Trees. Forest-trees, such as the walnut, the elm, 
the maple, should be interspersed with evergreens. The 
trees may be planted singly or in groups — rarely in 
rows — and must be arranged with reference to the play- 
grounds. For beauty and comfort, the tree deserves a 
prominent place in all school-grounds. The bare, shade- 
less, shapeless school-grounds so often seen, are a turn- 



SCHOOL-GROUNDS. 25 

ing shame and an inexcusable disgrace to the commu- 
nity. 

III. Improving and Preserving the School- 
Grounds. — Every school officer, every parent, and every 
child should feel a peculiar interest in beautifying and 
preserving the grounds and the building. 

1. The Teacher is the natural Leader in this as in 
all Educational Work. He consults, plans, and directs. 
He enlists pupils and patrons. He studies the plans of 
his predecessors, modifies and perfects them. Here we 
find one of the many reasons for retaining the same 
teacher for a series of years. 

2. Each Child is a Protector as well as a Constructor. 
The work, for the most part, should be done by the pu- 
pils. Each one should be trained to protect every shrub 
and flower. Thus our American youth may be educated 
to respect public property and public grounds. The van- 
dalism that begins with cutting and marring the school 
desks and destroying school shrubbery may thus in time 
be overcome. 

IV. — Advantages of Suitable School-Grounds. 

1. Invigorating and healthful exercises are encour- 
aged. 

2. Play, fun, and frolic on play-grounds will do much 
to remove restlessness in the school-room. 

3. Good school-grounds bring about better physical 
conditions, and thus promote study. 

4. The cultivation of taste and refinement is fos- 
tered. 

Glad Memoet.— The joy of childhood gladdens all the after- 
life. It is a joy to children to decorate, and preserve, and enjoy 
beautiful school-grounds. Millions will recall these happy school- 
days as a green oasis in a long life. 
2 



26 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 



Topical Eeview. — School-Grounds. 

The school-grounds should he : 

1. Central and accessible. 

2. Commodious and suitable. 

3. Healthful and beautiful. 
Plan of school-grounds. 

1. Each school should have its own plan. 

2. Grass and flower plots. 

3. Location of well. 

4. Arrangement of the play-grounds. 

5. Shade-trees and shrubbery. 
Beautifying and preserving school-grounds. 

1. The teacher the natural leader. 

2. Each child constructs and protects. 

3. ./Esthetic culture and glad memory the reward. 

A METnOD OF CONDUCTING PROFESSIONAL CLASSES. 

1. Subject assigned — School-grounds: the members of the class will 
study the lesson as here presented, or as presented in some other work. 

2. With the plot of the school-grounds drawn on the board, the top- 
ics presented in the chapter will be briefly discussed by the members of 
the class. 

3. The instructor, with his own plan on the board, briefly discusses 
the subject. 

4. A short time is devoted to criticisms, questions, and suggestions by 
the class. 

5. For the next recitation, each member of the class will prepare an 
original plot of school-grounds, and also a short essay on the subject. 

0. At that time the lesson of the previous day will be reviewed, and 
as many of the essays will be read and criticised as the time will permit. 

7. The essays and plots will now be exchanged. The members of the 
class will examine and grade each other's papers. At the next recitation, 
as the roll is called, these grades will be reported and recorded. In small 
classes the instructor can examine all the papers. 

Remarks. — By pursuing the above plan, I have secured very satisfac- 
tory results in the institute and normal school work. The professional 
instruction is thus made as interesting, as systematic, and as thorough as 
that in any of the sciences. 

I have found it necessary, however, to vary the plan to suit the sub- 
ject and the circumstances. It is due to say that I find other instructors, 
using widely different methods, but securing equally satisfactory results 
Here or elsewhere, there can be no stereotyped methods of teaching. 



SCHOOL-BUILDINGS. 27 

CHAPTEE II. 

SCHOOL-BUILDIIGS. 

I. Histoey of School Architecture. — The nine- 
teenth century abounds in surprises. School architecture 
is rich in monuments of progress. Marvelous has been 
the transition from the old log school-house, with its huge 
fireplace, its puncheon floor, its clapboard roof, its greased 
paper windows, and its old slab seats, to the Educational 




The Old Log School-House. 

Palaces of our towns and cities. Between these extremes 
our school architecture is infinitely varied. But, in most 
of the States, the country school-house is still compara- 
tively a rude structure ; unsightly, uncomfortable, and 
unhealthy ; poorly lighted, poorly heated, poorly venti- 
lated, and poorly adapted to school work. The resulting 
injury can not be estimated in dollars and cents ; millions 



28 



EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 



of youth suffer irreparable loss. Whoever contributes to 
the improvement of school architecture in the rural dis- 
tricts deserves to be crowned as a benefactor. Within a 
quarter of a century new school-buildings will be erected 
in nearly all the rural districts of the several States. No 




The Country School-House. 

means should be spared to induce school officers to make 
these structures the best of their kind. 

II. School Architects, and Plans for School- 
Buildings. — Only those who have made a profound study 
of school economy are prepared to plan school-buildings. 
On this point much common sense should be exercised. 

1. Employ School Architects. This is the age of spe- 
cialists. Division of labor enables each worker to become 
highly proficient in his specialty. The school architect 
is a specialist of great value to society. It pays to con- 
sult him. A country school-house to cost eight hundred 
dollars is to be built. Fifty dollars will secure plan and 
specifications, the result of long years of thought ; fifty 
dollars will bring blessings to generations of precious chil- 



SCHOOL-BUILDINGS 29 

dren. Where immortal minds are concerned, the best is 
the cheapest. 

Parents, you pay skilled workmen to repair your watch- 
es, to shoe your horses, to manage your cases in court, 
and to administer medicine to your families. Can you 
afford to employ unskilled workmen to plan the home 
where your children are to spend the greater part of their 
childhood ? 

2. Follow Plans. The whole is planned with refer- 
ence to school work. Any change may mar all. It is 
safe to follow skilled counsel. 

3. To the School-Board. Take up the school-buildings 
of your county with their surroundings. Plant them in a 
village ; examine them ; study them. These motley, un- 
shapely, repulsive, miserable structures were planned by 
school-boards or common carpenters. You are thoroughly 
disgusted. You are ready to anathematize the stupid 
blunderers. It is well. You will pursue a different 
course. You will command the highest skill. Your 
school-house shall be a model. Blessings on your wise 
heads and noble hearts ! 

III. Beauty as well as Utility. — In the school- 
building utility and beauty should be combined. Every- 
where nature teaches this lesson. " Thousands for utility, 
but not a dollar for beauty," is not a fit motto for civil- 
ized communities ; it is beneath the intelligence of the 
savage. 

1. The Cost. Beauty adds but little to the cost. It 
is an affair of proportions, of form, of adaptation, of 
color. The style of school architecture should be simple 
and chaste. Nothing gaudy or extravagant is permissible. 

2. Beauty Pays. That " a thing of beauty is a joy 
for ever," is noAvhere truer than here. " What a beauti- 



30 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

f ul school-house ! " This emotion, welling np in the 
heart of every child, of every parent, and of every passing 
stranger, is a perpetual joy. Such a building cultivates 
the taste of the entire community; it delights, it ele- 
vates, it pays. 

"The increasing attention bestowed on the appear- 
ance of the school-house at the present time is one of the 
most encouraging proofs of the general and permanent 
interest aroused in the welfare of schools, since purely 
aesthetic considerations are generally the last to make 
themselves felt. The rudeness of the district school- 
building is proverbial ; yet the expression of the tender 
memories that cluster around it forms a part of the 
choicest literature of every civilized country. If the 
transfiguring power of early association, therefore, ren- 
ders it an object of affection through life, in spite of its 
uncouthness, how much stronger would that affection be 
if the mature taste of later years confirmed the preference 
of childhood ! Not only the testimony of eminent writers, 
but the unwritten experience of every observing person, 
bears abundant witness to the subtile and enduring influ- 
ence of early associations ; and now, when the subject of 
education is receiving so large a share of careful thought, 
with a view to discover all available ways to perfect its 
means and methods, it would seem that this powerful 
agent should not be neglected. Without squandering 
any money, therefore, to make the school-house preten- 
tious, or a perfect specimen of one of the conventional 
orders of architecture, pains should be taken that it 
should not be an offense to the eye, or out of harmony 
with the landscape. Since this can generally be done 
also, without any, or with only slight, additional cost, 



SCHOOL-BUILDINGS. 31 

the educational value, moral and aesthetic, of the appear- 
ance of the school-house, may properly be included 
in the plans of the architect." — " Cyclopgedia of Edu- 
cation." 

IV. Size and Proportions of School-Build- 
ings. — In general, a school-building should be commodi- 
ous. As a minimum, 9 square feet of floor-space and 
108 cubic feet of air-space should be provided for each 
pupil. The height of the ceiling should be from 12 to 
14 feet. A room 26 X 28 X 13 feet will give nearly 150 
feet of space to each of 64 pupils. When the number of 
pupils exceeds 50, another room should be added. Men 
work for results. Commodious school-rooms give pure 
air and working space. Small, low, over-crowded school- 
rooms show wretched economy. A few paltry dollars 
must not be weighed against the health and lives of our 
children. 

" In many parts of the country the condition of the 
school-houses and the premises about them is a disgrace 
to the community. A building, made ugly to the extreme 
of parsimony in its construction, affording no adequate 
protection from the elements, destitute of ordinary com- 
forts within, and wanting in the conveniences demanded 
by decency without, is the place where all the children of 
the district are to pass their school-days and receive the 
most durable impressions of their lives. The only satis- 
faction to be gained from a consideration of this matter 
is in the fact that improvements are being made, and 
these conditions, so disreputable to the people who are 
responsible for them, are undergoing a change for the 
better. " — Johonnot. 



32 



EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 




SCHOOL-BUILDINGS. 33 

V. GtROUND-PlAN FOR A COUNTRY SCHOOL-HOUSE. — 

The cut on the opposite page will be readily understood. 
Few references seem necessary. For convenience, some 
references to the grounds are given here. 

References. 

A, School-room, 28 x 20 x 18 feet. 

B, Library and apparatus room, 10 x 8 feet. 

C, C. Entrance and cloak rooms, 8x8 feet. 

D, D. Porticoes 6x5x8 feet. 

E, E. Fuel-rooms, 6x6x8 feet. 

F, Teacher's platform, 8 x 6 x 1{ feet. 

G, G. Ventilating stoves. 
H, H. Ventilating flues. 

L, L, L. Platform and ventilation shaft, 3 feet wide, 6 inches high. 

M. Well and rustic arbor. 

iV, N, N. Walks through the grounds. 

0, 0, O. Flower-plots. 

P, P, P. Grass-plots. 

Q, Q, Q. Play-grounds; girls'; boys'. 

P, R. Evergreen hedges. 

Constructed from the standpoint of the school, with a view 
to compactness, convenience, adaptability, and economy, the 
above plan embodies, it is believed, in its simplest form, the 
essential conditions of a good country school-house. Such a 
building, properly furnished, will make glad the heart of the 
teacher. With far less labor he will be able to accomplish dou- 
ble the work he could do in an ordinary school-house. The 
pupils will be healthy and happy, and hence will be inclined to 
be orderly and studious. Circumstances do not make the man, 
but they may furnish him good opportunities to make himself. 
W ell-constructed and well-furnished school-buildings must exert a 
powerful influence in the elevation of mankind. 

The school-architect, for aesthetic reasons, may make immate- 
rial changes in the above plan, but he will not mar its educational 
features. 



u 



EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 



VI. Elevations. — The preceding cut gives an excel- 
lent ground-plan for a country school-house, from which 




may be constructed a great variety of elevations. Here is 
one that will be much admired for its chaste and simple 
beauty. 




Here is another elevation, somewhat more ornamental, 
but such as will delight the beholder. 

It is evident that the most cultivated taste may be 



SCHOOL-BUILDINGS. 35 

exhibited in the construction of country school-houses. 
From the ground-plan here given, a thousand different 
elevations may be made, and the variations in detail may 
be infinite. 

VII. Heating and Ventilating School-Build- 
ings. — Nothing connected with school architecture is 
more difficult or more important. It is frightful to con- 
template the suffering and death resulting from the lack 
of properly heated and well ventilated school-buildings. 
But a brighter era dawns. Inventive genius has given us 
the means by which almost perfect heating and ventila- 
tion may be secured ; and the cost is lessened rather than 
augmented by these improvements. How often pupils 
are called stupid and punished, simply because they are 
compelled to breathe impure air ! 

1. Ventilating Stoves. "Fire on the Hearth " is one 
of the best. Several others are probably equally good. 
The principle is the same. Pure air from without is 
constantly heated and thrown into the room. Like the 
old open fireplace, the stove also radiates heat and carries 
off impure air. All parts of the room are nearly equally 
heated, and the air is kept constantly pure. 

2. Ve?itilating Platform and Flues. A platform, 
three feet wide and six inches high, passes around the 
two sides and back end of the building. The end plat- 
form has an open base. The platform leads to the ven- 
tilating flues behind the stoves. The pipes from the 
stoves pass up through the brick flues, thus creating a 
strong and constant draft. What could be more simple ? 
Yet by this arrangement we secure pure air of about the 
same temperature in all parts of the room. 

3. Window Ventilation. Fit a board eight inches 
wide on the inside and bottom of the window. See that 



36 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

the board fits perfectly. Kaise the lower sash about eight 
inches. Where the lower sash overlaps the upper, a cur- 
rent of air will enter, ascending in a curve to the ceiling, 
thus obviating the direct drafts that are so dangerous from 
the windows raised or lowered in the usual way. All 
the windows may be thus arranged, even in the severest 
weather. During mild weather the school-room is venti- 
lated by lowering the windows from the top and rais- 
ing them from the bottom. A draft must be avoided. 
All windows in school-buildings should be hung with 
weights. 

4. Temperature. Next in importance to having a 
room supplied with fresh air, is it necessary for safety 
and health to maintain the proper temperature. From 
65° to 70° F is considered best in most parts of this 
country. These are the extremes. Every school-room 
should be furnished with a thermometer, and one of the 
pupils may be appointed to regulate the temperature. 
With the ventilating stove, this can be done without 
much difficulty. A uniform temperature is favorable to 
health and hard work. 

5. Location of Stoves. Close in the corners — never 
out in the room. Few things are more out of place than 
a stove in the middle of a school-room. The ventilating 
stove obviates the difficulty. One stove will answer ; but 
it is found that two small stoves give better satisfaction. 
During moderate weather but one need be fired. 

VIII. Light. — The building, in the Middle and 
Western States, usually fronts east or west. In warm 
weather this arrangement gives the full advantages of 
the southern winds. The curtains for the windows roll 
at the bottom, so as to admit the light from the top 
of the window. Light must not be admitted from more 



SCHOOL-BUILDINGS. 37 

than two sides of the room. Neither the teacher nor the 
pupils should face the windows ; hence windows in the 
rear of the building are not allowable. The nearer the 
school-room approaches the open air both as to light and 
ventilation, the better. 

IX. Porticoes, Fuel-Rooms, and Out-Buildings. 
— No little importance attaches to these addenda. They 
cost little, but they add much to the comfort, health, and 
morality of the school. 

1. Porticoes. A small portico at each entrance is de- 
sirable. Many reasons for these will suggest themselves. 

2. Fuel- Rooms may be built in connection with the 
porticoes. The door from the fuel-room opens into the 
portico, never into the school-room. This seems to be 
the best possible arrangement. In these rooms may be 
stored fuel sufficient for months. Economy, conven- 
ience, health, and efficiency are the considerations. It is 
a marvelous fact that, at the close of the nineteenth cen- 
tury, more than half of the schools of the rural districts 
leave their fuel without shelter. 

3. Privies. A tight fence, covered with vines, passes 
from the rear of the building back, separating the private 
play-grounds of the boys and girls. The privies, with 
deep vaults, should not be placed too far back. They 
should be kept clean and free from marks. These build- 
ings should be some distance apart, and should be screened 
by shrubbery. 

X. LIBRARY AND APPARATUS ROOM AND Cloak- 
Room. — Only teachers fully realize the value and neces- 
sity of these rooms. The additional cost is trifling. 

1. Library and Apparatus Room. This room should 
be immediately in the rear of the teacher's platform. 
The door, as in the plan, will not mar the teacher's 



38 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

board. With sucli a room, a library, a cabinet, and the 
necessary apparatus can be accumulated and preserved. 
These invaluable educational instrumentalities can and 
will be procured and preserved if a room is thus provided 
in which to keep them. 

2. Cloak-Booms. Separate cloak-rooms and separate 
entrances should be provided for the boys and the girls. 
These rooms need not be larger than 8x8 feet. One 
side of each room should have four tiers of boxes, 12 
inches deep and 8 inches high — 32 boxes in each room, 
one for each pupil. The other sides of these rooms 
should be provided with hooks or pegs, one for each pupil. 
The boxes and hooks should be numbered, and the pupils 
should have numbers to correspond. A place for every- 
thing is one of the conditions of order. It works well to 
give the boys the odd numbers, and the girls the even 
numbers. In the near future we shall no more think of 
having school-houses without apparatus and cloak-rooms 
than without windows and seats. 

XL Desks and Seats. — Competition and science 
have given us seats and desks almost faultless. It is 
economy to procure the best. School-desks with movable 
lids and seats are decidedly preferable. The desks must 
vary in height and proportions to suit the different pu- 
pils. The teacher's desk should be a model of beauty and 
utility. Every school-room should also be supplied Avith 
at least three chairs. 

XII. PlCTUKES AND FLOWERS IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 

— Plotinus said : " Never could eye that had not been 
made sun-like have seen the sun ; neither can the soul 
that has not become beautiful see beauty." It is beauty 
that ennobles the soul ; that raises it from the low and 
selfish desires of earth, to be akin to God. Beauty in 



SCHOOL-BUILDINGS. 39 

nature and in art has a refining and softening influence ; 
therefore it is important that educators take the thought 
into consideration. 

It is an easy matter to cultivate the assthetic part of 
man's nature. A vase or two of flowers on brackets or 
on the teacher's desk, and a few pictures to break up the 
dreary monotony of bare walls, address themselves to 
the vision, and produce impressions that work upon the 
thoughts and the sympathies. They arouse purer feel- 
ings, and lead the mind to higher thoughts, enabling the 
pupil to appreciate the highest and most refined pleasures. 

XIII. Cost of Building and Appurtenances. — 
The cost of a good country school-building, completed 
and furnished as indicated, will vary from $800 to $1,500, 
according to material used and style of finish. The peo- 
ple are glad to pay five per cent, on their property to 
secure a railroad. Five per cent, on the property of the 
average district will give at least $1,500. Kailroads pay ; 
but good school-houses pay vastly better. 

XIY. Valuable Hints. — School-boards may profit 
by the following suggestions offered by a practical edu- 
cator, in the erection of school-houses : 

1. The school-house should be but one story high in 
rural districts. 

2. A separate room should be provided for every fifty 
pupils enrolled in the school. 

3. Provision should be made for a recitation-room if 
the attendance exceeds fifty. This plan enables the 
teacher to accomplish far more, by having pupils who are 
preparing to teach take charge of some classes. 

4. Separate entrances, with outer porches to the 
school-house, for boys and girls, should invariably be pro- 
vided. 



40 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

5. The entrance porches should be external to the 
school-house. 

6. The school-rooms must be well ventilated. 

7. The window-sashes should be made to move up and 
down on pulleys, and the sills should be about four feet 
above the floor. 

8. Each school-house should be provided with a 
bell. 

9. If the house be brick, care should be taken to make 
the walls hollow, but air-tight ; otherwise the walls will 
be damp inside. 

10. All furniture and apparatus, such as desks, seats, 
blackboards, maps, library, books, and other furniture 
necessary for the efficient conduct of the school, should 
be furnished. 

11. The privy building, or closet, should be masked 
from view, and its approaches equally so. 

12. There should be little or no exposure to mud or 
wet in reaching it. 

13. No unpleasant sight or odor should be perceptible. 

14. The apartment should be well finished, and should 
be kept entirely free from cuttings, pencilings, or mark- 
ings, and scrupulously clean. 

15. There should be at least two privies attached to 
each mixed school, and they should be so separated that 
neither in approaching nor occupying them can there be 
either sight or sound observed in passing, or from one to 
the other. This can not be effected by a mere partition ; 
nothing can secure the object but considerable distance, 
or extra-heavy brick or stone walls resting on the ground. 
It is a serious error ever to omit this precaution. 

The height of a class-room should never exceed four- 
teen feet. 



SCHOOL-BUILDINGS. 41 

Topical Eeview. — The School-Building. 

History of school architecture. 

1. The old log school-house. 

2. Improved school architecture. 
Plans for school-buildings. 

1. Secure plans by school architects. 

2. Adhere to plans furnished. 

3.- Build in view of the immortal occupants. 
Beautiful school-buildings. 

1. Beauty as well as utility. 

2. Beautiful school-buildings pay. 
Commodious school-buildings. 

1. Ground plan for country school-house. 

2. Elevations of country school-house. 
Heating and ventilating school-houses. 

1. Great importance. 

2. Ventilating stoves ; position of the stove. 

3. Ventilating platform and flues. 
Jf.. Window ventilation. 

Light in the school-room. 

1. Light not admitted from more than two sides. 

2. Neither teacher nor pupils should face windows. 
Necessary rooms besides the school-room. 

1. Library and apparatus room. 

2. Cloak-rooms. 

3. Porticoes and fuel -rooms. 

4-. Recitation-room, where the school is large. 
Beautifying the school-room. 

1. Suitable pictures. 

2. Vases of flowers. 

Cost of building and appurtenances. 

1. The cost varies according to material and style. 

2. Good school-buildings pay. 
Valuable hints by practical educators. 

1. The rural school has but one story. 

2. A recitation-room is necessary if the school is large. 

3. T/ie entrance porticoes should be external. 



42 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

CHAPTER III. 

SCHOOL APPAEATUS. 

School apparatus embraces all instrumentalities used 
for the purpose of illustration and explanation. Tools 
are not more important to the mechanic than school ap- 
paratus to the teacher. The good teacher is skillful in 
the use of apparatus, and suitable apparatus almost dou- 
bles the efficiency of the competent teacher. The district- 
school set alone is here considered. Schools of a higher 
grade are usually well supplied with apparatus. Only in 
elementary schools, where apparatus is most needed, do 
we find a lamentable destitution. 

I. The Blackboard heads the List of Appara- 
tus. — In all branches it is in constant requisition. The 
teacher who ignores the blackboard deserves to be ignored 
by the school-board. It is an open confession of ineffi- 
ciency. 

1. Extent. The board should extend around the room, 
and should be about four and a half feet wide. The bot- 
tom of the board should not be more than two feet from 
the floor. The teacher's board should be of double width, 
to give space for programme, standing diagrams, etc. It 
is impossible to have too much blackboard surface. 

2. Material. Liquid slating is preferred to any other 
material. Placed on a smooth wall or board, it gives 
entire satisfaction. Slated paper attached to the wall 
answers well. The superiority and cheapness of liquid 
slating have occasioned the disuse of all other materials. 
Slating may be procured from all dealers in school appa- 
ratus. 

3. Color. Green is most grateful to the eye, and an- 



SCHOOL APPARATUS. 43 

swers as well for all purposes as black. After years of 
observation and experiment, I am constrained to recom- 
mend the exclusive use of green. Give the board two 
coats of black, then two of green, and it will not need 
repairing for several years. 

4. Erasers. During recitation, each member of the 
class should have an eraser. Small strips of sheepskin' 
will answer, but it is better to secure a sufficient number 
of the best erasers. 

5. Crayon. The common, cheap crayon gives the 
best satisfaction. If the erasing is done slowly, and with 
a downward movement, the dust is not seriously offen- 
sive. Pupils need to be trained to erase properly. 

6. Crayon Trough. The wainscoting should extend 
up to the board. At the bottom of the board should be 
securely fastened a trough, three inches wide and one 
inch deep. In this are kept the erasers and a supply of 
crayon. This is probably the most satisfactory and con- 
venient arrangement that can be made. Pupils need to 
be trained not to use the crayons and erasers except in 
class, or by direction of the teacher. 

7. Use of Blackboard. The least competent and most 
obscure teacher now uses the board in mathematics. The 
skillful teacher uses it in all recitations. In language 
and grammar the exercises are written on the board, and 
sentences are constructed, analyzed, and parsed on the 
board. In geography, maps are drawn and lessons out- 
lined. In reading, words are spelled and defined ; inflec- 
tion, emphasis, pitch, force, and quality of voice are 
marked. But it is needless to enumerate. The qualified 
teacher will no more attempt to teach without ample 
blackboard surface than the granger will attempt to farm 
without a plow. 



44 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

II. Beading Apparatus. — Illustrated reading-charts, 
slates, and blackboards are all that are needed. To inter- 
pret and illustrate lessons, every available object will be 
marshaled into service by the skillful teacher. 

III. Mathematical Appakatus. — Form and num- 
ber must be taught to children concretely. Every step 
must be first taken objectively. Interest, clear ideas, and 
culture result. 

1. Geometrical Forms. These can be made by teacher 
and pupils, but it is better to secure a box of accurate 
forms. These forms are of great value in education. 

2. Kindergarten Gifts. Nothing can be better to 
develop mathematical ideas from the objective view, than 
the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh gifts. 

3. Bundles of Small Sticks, six inches long and about 
the thickness of matches, furnish one of the best means 
of illustrating the processes and operations of arithmetic. 
Each pupil is furnished a bundle of these sticks and 
trained to use them in each of the fundamental rules. 

4. The Numeral Frame is very valuable, and should 
have a place in every district school. 

5. Weights and Measures are necessary aids. With 
these, the drudgery of committing unmeaning tables dis- 
appears. The study of denominate numbers becomes a 
real pleasure. The pupils understand what they are do- 
ing. Each child learns easily what he himself demon- 
strates by actual experiment. 

6. Metric Weights and Measures. No school should 
be without a set of the metric weights and measures. 
"With these, the metric system may be rendered familiar 
to all, and thus the way may be prepared for its universal 
use. 

IV. Geographical Apparatus. — The earth is the 



SCHOOL APPARATUS. 45 

real basis of instruction in this branch. Each lesson is 
based on the child's observation and experience. Correct 
teaching leads the child to observe and discover for him- 
self. Apparatus, however, greatly aids both teacher and 
pupil. 

1. Globes. A globe from eight to twelve inches in 
diameter and a five-inch hemisphere globe are needed. 
With these nearly all geographical topics may be illustrat- 
ed. The improved tellurian globes cost more, but seem 
almost indispensable. 

2. Geographical Board. This is very valuable. The 
board may be two by three feet, with water-proof strips 
around the edges. With sand, clay, and water, the con- 
tinents, divisions of land and water, mountain ranges, 
river systems, etc., are constructed by the young pupils. 

3. Outline Maps. A set of outline maps, and local 
maps of the township, the county, and the State, are in- 
dispensable. These maps, as well as the globes, may be 
advantageously used in almost every recitation. Only 
quack teachers are guilty of the crime of leaving these 
valuable aids unused, or of suffering them to be de- 
stroyed. 

V. Cabinet. — A small collection, to illustrate the 
natural sciences, can be made by the teacher and the 
pupils. School-boards will gladly provide cases. 

1. Geological Specimens of the Neighborhood can be 
collected and classified. Exchanges can be made with 
other schools. The pupils may secure the donation of 
some fine specimens. Many geological specimens may 
thus be accumulated. 

2. Botanical Specimens. The kinds of wood, leaves, 
flowers, grains, etc., of the surrounding country, may be 
prepared and arranged for the purposes of illustration. 



46 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

While affording recreation, the work of collecting and 
preparing these specimens will prove highly profitable. 

3. Zoological Specimens. Birds, insects, shells, etc., 
may be procured and classified. These, and indeed near- 
ly all the objects collected, may be used to illustrate read- 
ing-lessons, object-lessons, and language-lessons. 

4. Value of the Cabinet. A small collection, suitable 
for a country school, is inexpensive, and from year to year 
it will increase in value. Its value, educationally and 
practically, is very great. Pupils are trained to the habit 
of analytic observation. They learn to gain knowledge 
at first hand. It enables the teacher to open -up to the 
children the objective phase of nature. The basis is laid 
in experience for all future achievements in science. The 
masses ought not to be limited to the three K's, but should 
be introduced to the great realms of nature. 

VI. Chemical and Philosophical Apparatus. — A 
few simple articles will add largely to the interest. With 
these the teacher may introduce the pupils to these great 
departments of science. 

VII. Cost of Apparatus. — When we find that the 
common-school set of apparatus costs less than $100, it 
seems astonishing that any school should be unsupplied. 
Is it not mortifying to know that less than one third of 
the schools of the United States are supplied with even 
the most essential articles of apparatus ? Men squander 
millions on their appetites, and leave their children desti- 
tute of the necessities of intellectual life. Judicious ex- 
penditure is true economy. Money invested in school 
apparatus pays larger dividends than can be secured from 
stocks and mortgages. 

VIII. Use op Apparatus. — A prominent work of 
normal schools and normal institutes is to train teachers 



SCHOOL APPARATUS. 47 

to the skillful use of apparatus. Without such training 
the ingenious teacher may possibly work up to a high de- 
gree of skill, but the many will remain bunglers. Teach- 
ing is decidedly common-sense work. Here is the child 
to be educated. Here are the instrumentalities. Great 
educational principles are the teacher's chart and com- 
pass. Good judgment guides in the application of means 
to ends. The teacher is an artist. He fashions immortal 
spirits. Here, avoidable mistakes are the worst of crimes. 
IX. How to peocuee School Appaeatus. — To thou- 
sands of struggling teachers this is an unsolved problem, 
but it is certainly not unsolvable. 

1. Create a Demand for Apparatus. So teach and so 
work that the pupils and the people will say, " We must 
have apparatus." Secure a good lecture on the subject. 
Put strong articles in the local papers. Send an educa- 
tional tract on the subject to each family. 

2. The School-Board will purchase Apparatus if the 
demand is sufficiently strong. This is the right plan. 
Stoves, desks, and apparatus should be procured on the 
same ground. The law in most States makes it the duty 
of school-boards to furnish apparatus. 

3. Purchase Apparatus ivith the Proceeds of Enter- 
tainments. This plan is objectionable, but sometimes it 
is the only way to reach the result. 

4. Let the Teacher own the Apparatus. In excep- 
tional cases this is possible, but in most cases it is utterly 
impracticable. " With as much reason we might argue that 
the teacher should own the desks and the stoves. 

Kemakks. — 1. The instructor will illustrate the use of each 
article of apparatus. 2. Each member of the class will be trained 
to use the various articles. 3. Each member of the class will write 
an essay upon some topic connected with school apparatus. 



4:8 EDUCATIONAL INSTEUMENTALITIES. 

Topical Eeview. — School Appaeatus. 

Blackboard surface. 

1. Extent, material, and color. 

2. Crayon, trough, and erasers. 

3. Use and abvse of the blackboard. 
Reading apparatus. 

1. Board and slates. 

2. Charts, reading-blocks, etc. 

3. Incidentally, all other articles of apparatus. 
Mathematical apparatus. 

1. Geometrical forms. 

2. Kindergarten gifts. 

3. Slicks and numeral frame. 

J/.. Common weights and measures. 
5. Metric weights and measures. 
Geographical apparatus. 

1. Common globe and tellurian globe. 

2. Geographical board. 

3. Outline maps and local maps. 
4- Cabinet collections. 

Cabinet. 

1. Geological specimens. 3. Zoological specimens. 

2. Botanical specimens. 4- Value and use of cabinet. 
Chemical and philosophical apparatus. 

1. A few inexpensive articles. 2. Great value. 
Cost of apparatus. 

1. The minimum cost about one hundred dollars. 

2. Additions made from year to year. 
Use of apparatus. 

1. Required in institutions and in normal'schools. 

2. Acquired by private study and practice. 
How to procure school apparatus. 

1. Creccte a demand by good teaching. 

2. The school-board will purchase. 

3. By means of entertainments. 

4. The teacher can not own the apparatus. 



KINDERGARTEN GIETS FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 49 

CHAPTER IV. 

KINDERGARTEN GIFTS FOR ELEMENTARY 
SCHOOLS. 

I. Kindergarten (Children's Garden) — a system 
of primary education founded by Froebel, designed to 
precede ordinary school work. 

1 . Fundamental Principle. — Well - directed amuse- 
ments render the child a self-educator, and lead it, 
through play, up to work. The early years are wisely util- 
ized. The child grows happy, healthful, and sprightly. 
An invaluable foundation is laid in experience for all 
future work. 

2. Processes and Results* — "Properly, a kinder- 
garten is a school intended for children under six or seven 
years of age. Text-books, if used at all, are of the most 
elementary sort. Instruction is imparted orally and by 
exercises and object lessons. A large part of the work 
seems to a casual observer as play and nothing more. The 
attention of the little ones (too young to be set face to 
face with the printed page, as in ordinary public primary 
schools) can be earnestly engaged only by something which 
amuses them and keeps them in motion. This is a period 
of life when health and development of mind and body 
absolutely require motion, a time when it is a sin for chil- 
dren to keep quiet ; when the parent or teacher who com- 
pels them to be still for more than a very few moments at 
a time is the chief of sinners, a rebel against nature, a 
torturer and deformer of innocents. The slightest knowl- 
edge of anatomy and physiology teaches that at this early 
age inaction arrests the growth of bone, muscle, nerve, 

* " New York Journal of Education." 

3 



50 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

and tissue. The willow-like bones are warped, and the 
actions of brain, heart, and stomach are enfeebled by 
either long standing or sitting. Now the child needs 
play. But the kindergartner says : " Let him play to some 
purpose. Even play may be better directed by science 
than left to chance or unaided infantile discovery. The 
child's body and mind can be developed by systematic, 
well-directed play in the garden and in the house ; and 
this is what the kindergartner aims to give him. Parents 
have not the time, implements, and skill for this kind of 
training. The kindergarten is furnished with splints, 
straws, blocks, patterns, letters, geometrical diagrams, 
pictures, plants, fruits, and scores of objects to be used as 
object-lessons. With these the teacher proceeds, in con- 
formity with the carefully studied laws of mind, to culti- 
vate attention, memory, and thought, and call out and 
exercise the mental powers of the little observers. Then 
the fingers are set to work. The child plays with straws, 
splints, cards, ribbons, and blocks — not wholly undi- 
rected, as is most children's play at home, but under the 
lead of a mind which trains him to construct objects of 
beauty and utility. The child is taught to think, and his 
hand learns to obey thought. Surely all this is an admira- 
ble preparation for entrance upon that sober life of our 
common schools, in which most children start without 
any systematic training whatever." 

II. Kindergartens in" To wfs . — Every village with 
two thousand or more inhabitants will in the near future 
sustain a kindergarten. To manage these schools, the 
most gifted ladies with special training will be employed. 
"Who can estimate the resulting joy, vigor, and refine- 
ment ? 

III. Kindergarten Gifts por Elementary 



KINDERGARTEN GIFTS FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 51 

Schools. — Eegular kindergarten schools are not possible 
in the rural districts. Yet the mass of the children who 
enter our elementary schools greatly need more or less 
kindergarten training. Many suffer irreparable injury, 
physical and mental, from the ordinary treatment. How 
may the evil be remedied ? How may the primary work 
in elementary schools be adapted to child wants ? 

1. New Sets of Kindergarten Gifts must be invented 
for Ungraded and Primary Schools. We need an Amer- 
ican Froebel or an educational Edison to give us kinder- 
garten apparatus adapted to elementary schools. Millions 
will bless the name of the inventor. 

2. Widely Different Work must be provided. " Kin- 
dergarten work in Elementary Schools " is the title of a 
much-needed book. With suitable gifts, we must have 
directions for work that can be done by the pupils with- 
out interfering with the other school work. 

3. All Primary Teachers loill need to understand Kin- 
dergarten work. I do not mean that all must be accom- 
plished kindergartners, but that all will be required to so 
study child-nature and educational appliances as to be 
able to successfully conduct the necessary kindergarten 
work in district schools. 

IV. How to use the Gifts. — The want of time is 
the great difficulty. It will not answer to leave the chil- 
dren to amuse themselves with the gifts. The teacher 
must direct the little ones, and must secure results. The 
following course, pursued by an experienced teacher, 
commends itself : 

Before calling her class, she in a measure laid out 
the work for the little ones who were to remain in their 
seats. If splints were the material she was going to use 
that day, she would draw a simple figure on the black- 



52 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

board, and ask the pupils to arrange the sticks on their 
desks in as many and as complex ways as they could, 
always adhering to the fundamental form prescribed by 
her. After the recitation she invariably looked at each 
pupil's work, always to commend when possible. On 
other days, pebbles, bits of colored paper or ribbon, 
leaves, etc., were used in a similar way, but always under 
supervision and direction. She would not relax in order 
out of deference to the kindergarten spirit. She has in 
her school-room a table specially designed for her work. 
It is two feet high, thirty inches broad, and eight feet 
long, with extensions which may be drawn out, making 
the entire length twelve feet, thus permitting a good 
number of little boys and girls to operate close to the 
teacher's side. The table is covered with felt cloth, thus 
preventing noise. It is a piece of furniture which ought 
to be in every primary school-room. 

Until better gifts for the purpose are produced, the 
wise teacher may use some of Froebel's gifts. The fourth, 
fifth, sixth, seventh, ninth, and tenth are probably the 
best. 

V. KINDERGARTEN IN NORMAL INSTITUTES. — A few 

practical lessons each year, developing principles and 
illustrating the use of the gifts, will do great good. Thus, 
from year to year, some features of kindergarten may be 
introduced into all primary work. 

VI. Kindergarten in Normal Schools. — A term, 
at least, should be given to this work. The object is not 
to make skillful kindergartners — this requires years of 
study and practice — but to ground the student-teacher 
in sound principles and practices pertaining to primary 
work. All attempts to do extended kindergarten work 
in the ungraded school will be comparative failures ; but 



DISTRICT-SCHOOL LIBRARY. 53 

the ultimate use of some features of kindergarten, modi- 
fied and adapted, is now a foregone conclusion. 

VII. Caution. — Attempt no kindergarten work until 
you feel sure you understand the principles and know 
how to apply them. The principles, for the most part, 
apply to all primary teaching. As soon as you really un- 
derstand child-nature, and know how to develop child- 
mind, you will reject all arbitrary, machine, bookish, and 
task methods. You will see that education lies in the 
line of least resistance ; i. e., the line of greatest pleasure. 
You will lead the children through play up to work, and 
you will make all school work as interesting as possible. 
Unconsciously you will find yourself using kindergarten 
methods. 



CHAPTEE V. 

DISTRICT-SCHOOL LIBRARY.* 

Compaeatively few books find their way into the 
rural districts. The reading-matter is usually as defec- 
tive in quality as it is deficient in quantity. As a result, 
we often find a lack of that general and true culture for 
which the country is so favorable. The formation of a 
small, well-selected library, in connection with each coun- 
try or village school, will prove an invaluable educational 
instrumentality. 

I. Choice of Books. — In the selection of books, 
knowledge and culture should be considered. Some 
books must be obtained which will increase and broaden 
the knowledge of the reader, while others must be chosen 

* Written for this work by Professor G. W. Krall. 



54 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

for the purpose of directing the powers and molding the 
taste. A considerable number of books should be selected 
also with direct reference to school work. 

The first chosen should be reference-books. As the 
mind develops and teems with thought, the student must 
have new words. An enlargement of his vocabulary and 
a better understanding of the use of words can best be 
gained by constant reference to the dictionary ; hence, 
the first effort should be made to procure an unabridged 
dictionary — either Webster's or Worcester's. An encyclo- 
paedia should next be added, to open a wider range for 
information. Appletons' condensed work, in four vol- 
umes, is not expensive. Fuller text-books for reference, 
to supplement the books in use, will give the pupils a 
better idea of the extent of the field, and train to the 
habit of research. A large proportion of the books se- 
lected for youthful readers should be histories and biog- 
raphies. These arouse the mind and teach truth con- 
cretely. They make individual and national life as real 
as home life. Such works should be procured as the 
"Conquest of Mexico," "The Eeformation," histories of 
Greece, of Some, and of France, Motley's works, Macau- 
lay's "England," Thiers's "French Revolution," Ban- 
croft's histories, and the best biographies. The pages of 
these books are illuminated by examples that teach the 
truest heroism and incite to highest and noblest action. 
^Esthetic culture will be obtained by a study of the beau- 
ties of nature and of art. The poems of Longfellow, 
Whittier, Bryant, Tennyson, Hood, Milton, and others, 
with the prose works of Irving, Scott, Dickens, Thackeray, 
George Eliot, Holland, and many more, should gradually 
find a place in the library. A taste for these works will 
supplant the desire for story papers and flashy novels. 



DISTRICT-SCHOOL LIBRARY. 55 

Attractive books for the young should occupy the time 
that would otherwise be wasted in idleness or spent in low 
pleasures. 

Some idea of the events now transpiring, and the 
present thought of the world, can be obtained only by 
reading daily or weekly papers, and by the perusal of 
magazines and journals. A few of the best should be 
procured, and the pupils should be taught how to read 
them. Important items may be read to the school. 

II. Value of the School Libraky. — The masses 
seem to vegetate. Scarcely one in ten really thinks, or 
rises to the dignity of true manhood. Beading the 
best thoughts of the best writers stimulates thought and 
leads to a grander manhood. The library will cultivate 
a taste for reading, and interesting books will awaken a 
desire for more mental food. The study of text-books 
may strengthen the mind, but reading choice books cul- 
tivates it, and enlarges the sphere of knowledge. Local 
prejudices give way to a cosmopolitan spirit, and men live 
more because they feel more. A higher class of pleasures 
and nobler aspirations take the place of sensual appetites 
and selfish gratifications. 

III. How to use the Library. — As a rule pupils 
should read few books, and be encouraged to read these 
carefully. Few habits have a stronger tendency to emas- 
culate the mind than that of hasty reading, or literary 
gormandizing. An understanding of the proper meaning 
and use of words gives clearness and strength to thought 
and expression. Every effort should be made by the 
teacher to render reference to the dictionary necessary. 
For young pupils, the meaning of words should be illus- 
trated, but older pupils should be referred to the diction- 
ary, and directed how to use it. Questions should be 



56 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

asked which require an examination of the encyclopaedia. 
Subjects growing out of the ordinary lessons may be made 
to bring into requisition the dictionary, encyclopaedia, 
and larger text-books on the same or kindred subjects. 
Lead the pupils to see that they do not know all, but that 
what they know is only a beginning of what they should 
know. The library contains subject-matter for essays, 
and a skillful teacher can incite the pupils to read, and 
lead them to reproduce in their own language facts, 
events, narrations, or descriptions. Prose and poetry con- 
taining fine thoughts should be committed ; descriptions 
of various works should be written ; the beauty of ex- 
pression and shades of thoughts may be critically pointed 
out. In this way, writing compositions becomes a plea- 
sant task. From presenting in our language the thoughts 
of others we gain the ability to express our own. 

IV. Plan for sustaining the Library. — The 
money for the purchase of books must be obtained direct- 
ly or indirectly from the people of the district. The 
teacher and the pupils could, without much extra work, 
have occasional entertainments of declamations, recita- 
tions, essays, orations, charades, and dialogues, charging 
a small admittance fee. The school-board should give a 
small sum annually. The people of the district should 
be invited to donate books, and be led to feel an interest 
in the library. 

V. Management of the Library. — Eeference-books 
are used in the school-building under direction of the 
teacher. The care of the circulating library during 
school-term should devolve upon the teacher. No person 
should be allowed to handle books without the permission 
of the teacher. The responsibility must rest upon some 
one, and during the term the teacher has entire charge of 



SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 57 

the school-building and apparatus. When school is not 
in session, the board is responsible, and should keep the 
room securely fastened. Train the pupils to handle the 
books with care. Appreciation of benefits to be derived 
makes guardians of every one. At first the disposition 
to read must be encouraged. The pupils should be per- 
mitted to take books out on Friday, and retain them two 
weeks. During vacation the library could be opened on 
Saturdays. One of the ladies of the district might be 
appointed librarian, but the school-board should be held 
responsible. 



CHAPTER VI. 

SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 



1. Text-Books are books to be used by pupils in con- 
nection with the instruction given by the teacher. Good 
text-books, next to the living teacher, are the most im- 
portant of all educational instrumentalities. Treasured 
knowledge is found in books. He who has mastered the 
secrets of gaining knowledge from books may be consid- 
ered independent of the living teacher — fit to graduate. 
To develop this power is the work of the school. 

I. Characteristics of Good Text-Books. — Good 
school-books possess the following characteristics : 

1. School- Books should be brief. They are text-boohs, 
not encyclopaedias. Principles are briefly presented, clear- 
ly illustrated, and carefully applied. The teacher inter- 
prets and supplements the book. Pupils are trained to 
utilize their own experience, to compare the book used 
with other text-books, and to refer to the dictionary, the 



58 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

encyclopedias, and other books. They thus extend their 
knowledge beyond the book. A suggestive book guides 
and stimulates independent effort on the part of the 
pupil. 

2. School-Boohs s7wuM be logical and educational. 
(1.) Knowledge is both a means and an end, but culture 
is the great object in education. (2.) Only books in 
which the matter is logically arranged are fit for school 
purposes. (3.) When the subject is logically presented, 
and the matter so chosen and arranged as to awaken 
thought and inspire effort, the book gives the best results. 
(4.) Every paragraph should show the thinker and the 
educator. 

3. School- Boohs should he teachable and learndble. 
With rare exceptions, successful school-books are prepared 
by practical teachers. The author not only understands 
the plan of the subject, but also the plan of child-mind. 
The lessons are so presented that they can be easily learned 
and readily remembered. Good books are real helps. 
Poor books, written by mere theorists or blundering in- 
competents, are hindrances rather than helps. 

4. School-Boohs should be Models of Style. The au- 
thors of two of our best series of geographies called in 
the aid of accomplished teachers and writers to put their 
thoughts in the best shape. This is an admirable plan. 
Thinkers can write for thinkers, but their thoughts often 
need to be translated into the language of childhood and 
youth. The language of the text-book should be correct 
and choice, and the style clear, vigorous, and vivacious. 
Long, involved sentences are left to philosophers. Be- 
cause of a defective style, many otherwise excellent books 
are consigned to oblivion. Socrates said of Heraclitus, 
"What I understand of his work is very good, and I am 



SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 59 

willing to believe the same is true of what I can not com- 
prehend." Such a criticism ought to condemn any book. 

5. School-Books should be Models of Art. Nothing is 
too good for children. The best material, beautiful open 
pages, and choice illustrations are some of the desirable 
features. Beautiful books cultivate the taste and are a 
constant source of pleasure. Enterprise and competition 
are giving us school-books that are indeed models of art. 

II. Use and Abuse of Text-Books. — Text-books 
have their place. How to use them is the study of the 
teacher. 

1. Uses. Text-books are used (1), to give information ; 
(2), to secure systematic work ; (3), to employ the time 
and energies of the pupils ; (4), to aid the teacher. The 
wise use of text-books is an important feature of school 
management. 

2. Abuses. These are legion. (1.) Committing the 
text to memory. Not what the book says, but what the 
pupil thinks about what it says, is important. " Crowd 
not the memory, but develop the understanding," is sound 
doctrine. (2. ) Reciting the book. The subject, and not 
the book, is what we need to teach. (3. ) Confining the 
work to the book is a pernicious abuse. Nature should 
be made to supplement the book. The teacher needs to 
lead the pupils to combine experimental knowledge with 
book knowledge. (4.) Beware of the teacher with one 
book. Where the teacher knows but one book, he is like- 
ly to be narrow and dogmatical ; and the pupils are liable 
to imbibe the spirit of the teacher. We need large, liber- 
al-minded teachers who use books as helps. 

3. Oral and Objective Teaching can never take the 
place of text-books. At first, the living teacher and ob- 
jects almost wholly engage the attention of the child ; 



60 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

but, more and more, the pupil learns to gain knowledge 
from books, and the work becomes subjective as well as 
objective. 

III. Unifoemitt. — All members of the class should 
have the same text-book. The widest experience verifies 
this statement. Some theorists claim that a variety of 
books may be used to advantage for reference. This is 
true, but it is not true so far as it refers to text-books. 
By some means uniformity should be secured. As a rule, 
the best teachers insist on all members of a class having 
the same book. 

IV. Adoption of Text-Books. — This is a trouble- 
some subject. Changes in school-books are exceedingly 
unpopular. How often should books be changed ? "Who 
shall recommend ? Who shall adopt ? 

1. Teachers recommend. Teachers should be judges 
of text-books, and should keep pace with the various im- 
provements. The teachers of the county appoint a com- 
mittee of their number to report a list of the books at a 
subsequent meeting. After a critical examination, the 
teachers recommend a list of books. If judiciously select- 
ed, school-boards will usually adopt the books thus rec- 
ommended. 

2. School-Boards adopt. The presidents of the school- 
boards of a county, in some States, meet and adopt books 
for the county. In other States, each board acts indepen- 
dently. The earnest recommendation of the teachers in 
either case usually secures a uniformity of good books. 

3. Term of Adoption. The limit usually fixed varies 
from three to five years ; and this limitation, for the most 
part, proves satisfactory. At the end of the period fixed, 
the list of books should be carefully revised, but no 
changes should be made unless decided benefits may be 



SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 61 

expected. Frequent changes are injurious, but it is con- 
summate folly to refuse to change poor books for good ones. 
4. Caution. Teachers, except in an associated capa- 
city, should seldom urge changes. The reason for this 
caution is apparent. 

V. Will Any Book do ? — Certainly not. The mas- 
ter-workman may succeed with poor tools ; but, the bet- 
ter his tools, the greater his success. Books are tools. 
Many are worthless. Like the first rude engines, reap- 
ers, and sewing-machines, these should give place to those 
perfected by experience and thought. The old education 
must be absolutely revolutionized. The principles devel- 
oped by Pestalozzi and others are accomplishing their mis- 
sion. Irrational, dogmatic, repulsive processes are giving 
place to rational, philosophic, and attractive methods. 

1. Text-Boohs must breathe the Spirit of the New Edu- 
cation. The matter and the method must be adapted 
to the capacity of the learner. ISTo fetters must be im- 
posed on child-mind. Independent and glad effort must 
be stimulated. Books with these characteristics are in- 
valuable. They are the product of philosophy and expe- 
rience. They are sunshine and nutriment to the learner. 

2. The Teacher tests the Boole by Actual Trial. From 
day to day he observes its adaptations. Everything urges 
him to reject an unworthy book. He welcomes a true 
text- book with feelings such as stir the heart of a per- 
former on receiving a first-class piano. Such text-books 
do not come at the bidding of publishers. Like the 
"Iliad" and "Paradise Lost," and the plays of Shakes- 
peare, they come by the inspiration of genius to meet 
the wants of the race. 

VI. The Plan of the Futuke. — The districts will 
own the books, slates, pencils, pens, rulers, and paper. 



62 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

This plan is now in use in many places, and works ad- 
mirably. The cost is reduced fully one half, and the 
necessary materials are always ready for use. 

VII. Valuable Thoughts concerning Text- 
Books. 

1. Purpose and Character of Text-Boohs (" Cyclopae- 
dia of Education "). — Their purpose is three-fold : (1), 
to aid the teacher, by affording to the pupil independent 
sources of information and instruments of study ; (2), to 
aid the pupil in acquiring habits of self-reliance in study ; 
and (3), to enable the pupil to learn how to use books as 
a means of self-culture. These objects dictate the mode 
of constructing school text-books ; and they should all be 
carefully kept in view by the teacher in the selection of 
books, so that they may be suited to the mental status and 
grade of culture of his pupils in regard to the following 
points : (1), language and style ; (2), arrangement of 
topics and general treatment of the subject ; and (3), 
adaptation to the pupil. The object of using text-books 
is often entirely defeated by a disregard of the first of 
these points. A text-book written in a style beyond the 
capacity of the pupil is not only useless, but positively 
injurious ; since the pupil either becomes disgusted with 
the study and neglects it altogether, or he commits to 
memory the language of the book under the impression 
that he is acquiring knowledge, and thus his mental 
habits are seriously, if not permanently, vitiated. 

The following cautions should be particularly observed 
by teachers in the use of text-books : (1), the book should 
not be permitted to supersede the teacher, its use being 
always preceded, accompanied, and supplemented by oral 
instruction ; (2), it should never be paramount in the pu- 
pil's mind to the subject, the impression being constantly 



SCHOOL HYGIENE. 63 

inculcated by the teacher that it is the subject that is 
studied, and that the book is only an instrument of the 
study, or an auxiliary to it ; (3), it should not be allowed 
to supersede the necessity of acquiring knowledge, as far 
as possible, by personal experience, particularly in elemen- 
tary education. In advanced instruction it will always be 
found that those will use text-books most effectively who 
have acquired the most knowledge without them. 



CHAPTER VII. 

SCHOOL HYGIENE. 



I. Hygiene is the Akt of preserving Health. — 
It is based on physiology, the science of the way in which 
organized beings live. In our many excellent works on 
this subject are evolved sanitary principles. Of these no 
parent or teacher can afford to be ignorant. Health is 
vastly more important than wealth. A teacher is criminal 
who does not observe the laws of health in the manage- 
ment of his school. A full discussion of the subject here 
is impossible. What follows, it is hoped, will prove bene- 
ficial to both teachers and pupils. 

The laws of health are few and plain : good parent- 
age, temperate habits, abundant sleep, suitable food, 
well-directed effort— these are the conditions of health. 
To teach the pupils the laws of health and train them 
to the habit of right living is a primary duty of the 
teacher. 

II. Hygienic Position. — 1. The erect position in 

* By President C. H. Dutcher. 



64 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

sitting, standing, and walking is as necessary to health as 
to gracefulness. " Keep your back straight " were the last 
words of a celebrated physician to his son. The violation 
of this condition of health is one of the great hygienic 
sins of school life, occasioning untold suffering. Not for 
a moment must a stooping position be tolerated. 

2. Height of Seat. The child's feet should rest firmly 
on the floor. No child can long occupy a seat too high 
or too low and keep the spinal column erect. The shoul- 
ders fall forward, the chest is compressed, the breathing 
is defective, the circulation is impaired, and the child 
slowly becomes an invalid. See to it that the seats vary 
in height to suit your pupils. 

3. Curve of Seat and Slope of Bach. Straight seats 
and backs, rendering an erect position difficult, are now 
inexcusable. The construction of desks that will foster 
an erect position has commanded the best efforts of able 
scientists. Some of our school-desks are admirable. The 
seat is curved and slopes upward. The back is curved to 
support the back of the child, and the slant is such as to 
favor the erect position. The old box desk, that cruel 
instrument of torture, like the old slab seat, belongs to a 
past age. 

4. Height of Desk. Curvature of the spine often re- 
sults from sitting habitually with one shoulder higher 
than the other. Neither the breathing nor the circula- 
tion can be normal. On this point the teacher can not 
be too careful. 

5. Training is the Condition of Success. With all 
possible aids, constant watchfulness is needed to train 
pupils to the habit of maintaining an erect position. 

III. Ventilation of School-Kooms. — 1. Impor- 
tance of Adequate Ventilation. Pure air contains 21 



SCHOOL HYGIENE. 65 

per cent, of oxygen and 79 per cent, of nitrogen. Air 
once breathed becomes loaded with impurities. Breath- 
ing vitiated air enervates, impairs digestion, causes head- 
ache, renders the pupil listless and inattentive, and makes 
mental growth almost impossible. The importance of 
good ventilation can hardly be exaggerated. 

2. Ventilating Stoves and Flues. "At the present 
time there can be no reasonable excuse for poisoning 
pupils with foul air." Science and art have united to 
make the heating and ventilation of school-rooms auto- 
matic. Criminal ignorance or criminal negligence must 
account for poor ventilation. Even the most stupid 
teacher, with the appliances of the modern school-house, 
can scarcely succeed in poisoning the children. 

3. Ventilating ly Windows. If the top of the win- 
dows is near the ceiling and the ceiling is high, not much 
harm can result from admitting the fresh air directly 
from the open window. As a general thing, however, 
the windows should not be lowered more than two inches ; 
otherwise, the Volume of cold air coming directly upon 
the heads of the pupils will prove injurious. On most 
windows there should be placed a reflector to throw the 
cold air up to the ceiling. This will cost but a trifle, 
and in winter will prove of great value. By this means 
the air will become of the proper temperature before it 
reaches the heads of the pupils. We caution the teacher 
not to permit a pupil, especially when warm, to sit in a 
strong draught. 

4. Ventilation during Recesses. There can be no bet- 
ter time for thorough ventilation. Twice during each 
half day the pupils pass out into the open air, and shout 
and laugh their lungs full. The windows are thrown up 
and the doors left open. Two rests during each half day 



66 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

pay. Almost perfect ventilation is insured ; the pupils 
are happier, and will do a third more work ; much time 
is saved, and the physical vigor of teacher and pupils is 
increased. 

IV. Light in the School-Koom. 

1. Dark and Damp Rooms are a fruitful source of 
disease. The prevalence of weak eyes and short-sighted- 
ness is a sad commentary on our management with refer- 
ence to light. Fellow teachers, ponder and heed the fol- 
lowing directions : 

2. Imitate Nature. The nearer the light of the school- 
room approaches that of the open air the better. Curtains 
or shutters are only used to avoid the glare of the sun. 

3. Position of Pupil. The light should not fall di- 
rectly in front of the pupil. High windows, admitting 
the light from above the pupil, are best. 

4. Change Position. It is well so to place the pupil 
during recitation that the light will fall upon him from a 
different direction than during study. With a little care 
the teacher may observe this hygienic law. 

5. Look ivell to the Eyes of your Pupils. Not to do 
so is cruel. By judicious management many eyes may be 
improved, and nearly all may be saved from permanent 
injury. School-rooms should be lighted from the sides 
only. Neither pupils nor teachers must be permitted to 
face windows. As far as possible, the light should come 
from above the level of the eye. 

V. Calisthenic Exercises. — A well-arranged course 
of indoor exercises is of great benefit in any school . The 
books published upon this subject need to be used with care. 
Many of them multiply exercises unnecessarily. Some 
contain much that is objectionable, if not actually improper. 
Of the value of such exercises there can be no doubt. 



SCHOOL HYGIENE. 67 

(1.) They supply a great want when outdoor exercise 
can not be taken. (2. ) They can he used at any time to 
break up sluggishness. (3.) They call into activity all 
the muscles, and hence promote health. (4.) These move- 
ments are regular and in time, and hence develop grace- 
fulness. (5.) They train to prompt and exact obedience. 
(G.) They train pupils to work in harmony with other 
pupils, and thus prepare for society and government. 

VI. Plat and Health. 

1 . As a hygienic agency, nothing can take the place 
of amusements. Kecreation is re-creation. Study ex- 
hausts ; play rests. Many are utterly ignorant of the 
philosophy of recreation, and to not a few teachers recre- 
ation seems to be a lost art. 

2. Play-Grounds. Every school should be provided 
with ample play-grounds, and every proper form of out- 
door amusement should be encouraged. Health is vastly 
more to be desired than the sham refinement and mock 
delicacy that forbid healthful recreation. School life is 
the time when, most of all, healthful recreation is needed. 

3. Plays J vr Boys. Hardy and vigorous games should 
be encouraged. We want strong men, able to do and to 
bear. The more studious the boy, the more vigorous 
should be the recreation. 

4. Plays for Girls. For girls, nearly all schools, high 
and low, are prison-houses of decorum ; repressing the 
glad activity necessary to physical vigor and happy lives. 
It is infinitely better to give our girls less music and less 
book knowledge, but more physical vigor. A teacher who 
does not stimulate the girls to "romp" and take abun- 
dance of outdoor recreation sins against the race ; the girls 
are the future wives and mothers. Encouraged by teach- 
ers and parents, girls will usually select appropriate plays. 



68 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

5. Play is Spontaneous Activity. Pupils should be 
left free to select their own plays ; unwittingly, they will 
bring into action all the principal muscles, especially those 
that are used least while in the school-room. The teacher 
may, and indeed should be upon the play-ground, to sug- 
gest plays, and thus quietly secure the selection of refin- 
ing amusements. He should not dictate in any resj)ect, 
nor use authority while directing the pupils in their 
plays. "The Philosophy of Recreation" ought to inter- 
est teachers and parents. 

VII. Hygienic Habits. — Teachers and parents owe 
it to the rising generation to train the young to convert 
hygienic laws into hygienic habits. 

1. Cleanliness. Order may be the first, but assuredly 
cleanliness is heaven's second law ; soap and civilization 
are inseparable. Bathing is scarcely less necessary than 
food. Eegular bathing, winter and summer, greatly in- 
creases physical vigor and mental power. A free use 
of water is the best of all preventives of disease. Filthi- 
ness characterizes swine and savages. 

2. Clothing. Proper attention should be paid to clo- 
thing. The principal use of clothing is to protect the 
body from heat and cold. Health, therefore, demands 
that we should consider the hind of clothing, the manner 
of wearing clothing, and the necessary changes of clothing. 
Upon these points the wise teacher will speak plainly and 
frequently. 

3. Food. "Eat to live" is the motto of a man. A 
brute lives to eat. The quality of the food, the quantity, 
the times of eating, and the manner of eating are vital 
points, to be elaborated by the teacher. "Here a little 
and there a little." 

4. Sleep. Abundant sleep is a primary condition of 



SCHOOL HYGIENE. 69 

health and study. Every act of mind or body tends to 
exhaustion. Waking and sleeping rest give the system 
time to repair the waste. He who rises each morning as 
strong as the previous day maintains his vigor. The 
great students and great workers have ever been good 
sleepers. Hard study hurts no one. Irregularity, dis- 
sipation, and late hours kill. We want growth as well 
as acquisition. 

5. Cheerfulness. Youth time is the sunny side of life. 
Clouds will appear and do appear ; but the teacher should 
endeavor to turn the silver lining to his pupils, and lead 
them to look up on that. Serenity and cheerfulness pay 
in effective work, and a good conscience usually means a 
long life and a happy old age. Cheerfulness is the best of 
all hygienic agencies. Those who are always glad are sel- 
dom sick. Of all places, home and school should be made 
most cheerful. A grim, cold, repulsive teacher chills the 
child to the bones. This grimness is not confined to male 
teachers ; there are thousands of lady teachers who long 
since forgot how to smile — at least, in a sweet and loving 
manner. This is dreadful in a primary school. We have 
one in mind now. The lady is tall, pale, wears glasses, 
and never smiles ; and yet she is one of the noblest of 
women. Her pupils seem to have copied her. They look 
anxious and pale ; wrinkles are on their young brows ; life 
seems scarcely worth living. They become an easy prey to 
disease and death. This is all wrong. Education comes 
from voluntary and glad effort. The teacher ought to 
be happy and glad. Cheerful and loving herself, she 
ought to fill the school-room with an atmosphere of love 
and a glow of cheerfulness. In such a school, disease 
will be a stranger. 

VIII. School Punishments should be Hygi- 



70 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

entc. — The health of the teacher as well as of the pupils 
is often seriously injured by unwise punishments. Think 
of it. Study to make your pupils happy, not miserable. 
Even punishment should be full of encouragement. 

IX. How to keep Well. — Henry Ward Beecher 
gives the following invaluable hints. Well may teachers 
and pupils ponder over these deductions from experience : 

1. Select a good father and mother to be born from. 

2. Then, being born with a good body, regard it as a 
machine, and keep it in perfect order by the same meth- 
ods by which you would keep any other machine in order. 
The body is an engine ; food is the fuel ; blood is the 
steam ; the head is the cylinder where the steam works. 
One must not create, by too much fuel, an excess of 
steam ; that will strain the engine, and make poor work. 
You must not let the fuel get out and the fire grow low ; 
then the engine will not work at all. Most men eat be- 
cause they are hungry, or because the food tastes good. 
Those are two very respectable facts ; nevertheless, a man 
who is working ought to eat rather with reference to what 
he has to do, determining both quality and quantity by 
that consideration. He should sort his food as an engi- 
neer does his coal and his pine wood. If I have to do a 
pretty sharp morning's work, I eat eggs, toasted bread, 
and coffee, which combine a great deal of nourishment 
with a very little weight, and are easily digested. On 
the yolks of two boiled eggs, a slice of toast, and a cup of 
coffee, I can work from eight to two without a break. In 
summer, I generally make my breakfast of bread and 
fruits. A light breakfast suits me. It may not another. 
I need but little food. I can eat all things eatable, pro- 
vided I do not overfill. 

3. Next to firing up comes clearing out the ashes. 



SCHOOL HYGIENE. 71 

What is called being tired is nothing in the world but 
ashes in the body ; for every vital act involves a consump- 
tion of fiber or nerve material, and the consumed material 
collects. "When a man has been working all day, whether 
with his brain or with his muscles, his body is full of 
waste material which has not yet been carried off. "When 
he goes to sleep, the whole system recuperates and reinte- 
grates itself ; the brain recovers ; the various capillaries 
and excretive organs take up the waste, and clean the sys- 
tem out. In the morning, every man ought to give na- 
ture an opportunity to complete this cleansing operation, 
and he ought not to begin work till it is completed. It 
is as important as morning prayers. If a man is cos- 
tive, his brain will be muddled, and his prayers will be 
muddled. 

4. In this connection comes the morning bath. A 
great deal of waste should pass ofE through the skin, and 
it is of the utmost importance that its pores should be 
kept open, that they may do their work well. I have 
been accustomed most of my life to take a cold bath in 
the morning when I get out of bed. That, however, is an 
experiment which every man must try for himself. If he 
does not get up a reaction, and the cold water turns his 
lips and nails blue, he must modify it. But I recommend 
a daily bath in one form or another. 

5. Sleep is a great restorer of nervous energy, and it 
ought to be taken regularly and systematically. I think 
a man should go to bed at ten o'clock. Eight hours is a 
fair amount of sleep. "Where a man is living under pres- 
sure, where his employment necessitates incessant brain- 
work of an exciting kind, more sleep may be necessary. 
As a rule, I allot the early morning to study, the after- 
noon to social work, and the evening to social recreation. 



72 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

6. Good fuel, well adjusted to the capacities of your 
machine and the work it has to do, an engine kept clean, 
inside and out, and sleep enough, constitute the essential 
physical conditions of health. There is one other con- 
dition quite as important : Refuse to he unhappy. The 
man who sleeps well, keeps himself clean, and feeds well, 
and then refuses to be unhappy — who makes account with 
himself that unhappiness is wrong and ought to be thrust 
out ; who believes that he ought to maintain a trustful, 
cheerful frame of mind, and does it, if he has had a fairly 
good body to start with — ought to be able, accidents ex- 
cepted, to keep it in good, vigorous, working condition up 
to the end, or nearly to the end. 

X. Longevity of College Graduates. — That vig- 
orous application to study is not opposed to health and 
long life, is easily shown by reference to the necrology 
rolls of all our oldest institutions of learning. In a receut 
necrology register of Brown University, out of a list of 
thirty-one, two were over ninety years, five over eighty, 
eight over seventy, five over sixty, six over fifty, leaving 
only five who died under fifty years of age. The fact is 
that, in most men, development of mind strengthens the 
body. The statistics of our late war show that, as a rule, 
the greatest percentage of deaths from disease occurred in 
regiments composed mainly of men recruited among the 
ignorant and immoral classes. The great thinkers of all 
ages have usually been healthy and long-lived. Hard 
study injures no one. 

XL Laws of Health. — These laws are stated from 
the educational standpoint.* 

1. A Well-regulated Mind is the Most Important Laiv 

* These laws and one or two other items are taken from Ilolbrook'a 
" Hygiene of the Brain," a very valuable work. 



SCHOOL HYGIENE. 73 

of Health. The proper object of life is the development 
of the mind. The brain requires constant exercise to 
maintain its power. The tone of the mind has the most 
potent influence on the health. If our pursuits are ration- 
al and in harmony with the laws of God, the self-satisfac- 
tion resulting has the most exhilarating influence on health. 

2. A Resolute Will and Ambition to succeed in Some 
Honorable Career is the Second Law of Health. A strong 
will has a wonderful effect on the health. A determina- 
tion to live and work throws off diseases. 

3. Love in all Innocent Forms is the Third Law of 
Health — Love of Friends, Love of Society, Love of Women, 
Love of God. There is no higher hygienic law than to 
love with our whole soul, and to work with all our might. 
The brute basks, man works. " The bliss is in action, not 
in ease." God is love, and the superior man is godlike. 

4. Balanced Culture is the Fourth Law of Health. 
Muscular exercise must balance mental, and intellectual 
activity must balance emotional. Every muscle and every 
brain-cell needs to be daily used. Every power of the 
soid should be kept in action. Balanced culture gives a 
vigorous body and a vigorous mind. One-sided culture 
is a fatal mistake. Let the workingman devote certain 
hours daily to mental culture. Let the student devote 
certain hours daily to labor and recreation. 

But, if the brain is exhausted by overwork, rest it — rest the 
whole body. You can not escape the penalty of overwork by 
extra work. This applies to the body as well as to the brain. If 
you are physically exhausted, you can not well perform mental 
labor, and vice versa. 

5. To resist and throw off Trouble is the Fifth Law of 
Health. Every species of uncomfortable sensation must 
be driven off. " By the Eternal, these miserable feel- 

4 



74: EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

ings must go ! " is better than all medicine. The great 
destroyers of life are care, misery, worry, fretting, crime, 
and dissipation, and not exertion, physical or mental. 
Fretting is a moral and physical sin, destroying health, 
usefulness, and happiness. None but a child cries over 
spilt milk. Let it go ; only take care for the future. Al- 
ways do the best you can, and never worry. Worrying 
undermines health and unfits the teacher for his duties. 

XII. Never use Tobacco [Dio Lewis]. — I trust you 
will never learn to use tobacco. It is doing more to de- 
stroy the brains and nerves of American boys than any 
other agency that can be named. Within half a century 
no young man addicted to the use of tobacco has grad- 
uated at the head of his class in Harvard College, though 
five sixths of the students have used it. If a man wishes 
to train for a boat race, his trainer will not let him use 
tobacco, because it weakens his brain and muscles so that 
he can not win. If a young fellow would prepare to play 
a fine game of billiards, while he is training for the tour- 
nament his trainer will not let him use tobacco. And, 
as you see from the experience in Harvard College, if a 
man will train himself to graduate from a college with 
honor, he must not use tobacco. It is a powerful poison, 
and the brain can not escape if it is used in any form. 

XIII. Method of promoting Health. (W. E. 
Dodge.) 

1. Temperance. I can only say that fifty years' ex- 
perience and observation confirm the opinion that total 
abstinence from the use of alcoholic drinks is best for the 
promotion of permanent health. 

2. Regular Systematic Employment, aided by outdoor 
exercise, is a great preserver of health. 

3 A Cheerful Disposition, that trusts in God's provi- 



SCHOOL HYGIENE. 75 

dence, and discharges daily duty, leaving results in his 
hands, is another preventive influence. 

4. Regular Hours for meals as far as possible, and 
early retirement for rest, and rising generally with the 
sun, are also to be recommended. 

5. Food. Every man, by careful watching, learns 
what kinds of food do not agree with him, and are not 
easily digested ; and, if he desires good health, must avoid 
them. 

6. Excretions. Never allow a day to pass without 
a regular discharge from the bowels, and have some regu- 
lar hour for this duty, and the system will respond to it. 
No one can have permanent good health who neglects this. 

7. Watch against Colds by keeping out of draughts, 
and never allow a cold or cough to continue without 
prompt attention. 

8. Be careful to keep the feet dry and warm and the 
head cool. 

9. The Future. Above all, have the great work for 
eternity settled, so that the mind may be at rest, and not 
constantly anxious about death and its consequences. 

"Make a firm-built fence of trust, 

All around to-day, 
Fill it in with useful work, 

And within it stay. 
Look not through the sheltering bars, 

Anxious for the morrow ; 
God will help, whatever comes, 

Be it joy or sorrow." 

XIV. Earnest Words to Teachers. — School hy- 
giene is fraught with the highest good of our race. The 
subject is boundless. In this outline we merely seek to 
emphasize vital topics and make practical suggestions. 



76 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

The many excellent books published, treating of hygiene, 
render it unnecessary to discuss details. We conclude 
with earnest words to the great brotherhood of teachers. 

1. You owe it to yourself and to your school to be 
healthy. Obey the laws of health. Brayely do your 
work. Avoid overwork. Throw off care. Keep your- 
self vigorous and happy. 

2. Train your pupils to live hygienically. Teach by 
example. Incidentally impress the lessons of health. 

3. See to it that all sanitary principles are observed in 
the ventilation, the heating, and the management of your 
school. This is your work. 

4. The love of truth and the desire for knowledge in- 
duce mankind to study, to develop the mind, and to 
gather food for thought. Too often the knowledge ac- 
quired is never applied, either to the amelioration of our 
own condition or to the edification of others. A knowl- 
edge of hygienic laws without application is void. Many 
principles of hygiene should be observed by the pupil from 
force of habit. To do this requires time and attention. 
A habit can not be formed in a day ; especially if some 
old one must first be eradicated. Remember that theo- 
retic hygiene saves no one ; conformity to the laws of 
health must grow into a habit. 

5. Keep in mind that recreation is as necessary as 
study. Manage to have all your pupils to take vigorous 
exercise and enjoy it. Permit no lounging during re- 
cesses. Guard, however, against injury to the delicate. 

The suggestions in this chapter are the results of a 
wide experience. It is hoped that you will find them 
helpful. Most of all will the writer be repaid if you 
shall be stimulated to the careful study and wise practice 
of school hygiene. 



SCHOOL HYGIENE. 77 

Topical Eeview. — School Hygiene. 

Definition. 

1. Basis. 

2. Importance. 

3. Laws of health. 
Hygienic position. 

1. Keep your back straight, 

2. Height of seat. 

3. Curve of seat and slope of back. 

4. Height of desk. 

5. Training is the condition of success. 
Ventilation of school-rooms. 

1. Importance of adequate ventilation. 

2. Ventilating flues and stoves. 

3. Window ventilation. 

4- Ventilation during recesses. 

Light in the school-room. 

1. Evils of improper light. 

2. Imitate nature. 

3. Position of pupils with reference to the light. 

4. Change of position. 

5. Look well to the eyes of your pupils. 

Callisthenic exercises. 

1. They are valuable, and supply a great want. 

2. They break up sluggishness and stupidity. 

3. They promote health by exercising every muscle. 
4- They develop gracefulness. 

5. They train to exact obedience. 

Play and health. 

1. Recreation is re-creation. 

2. The school play-grounds. 

3. Plays for boys. 

4. Plays for girls. 

5. Play is spontaneous activity. 

Hygienic habits. 

1. Cleanliness. 2. Clothing. 3. Food. 4. Sleep. 5. Cheerfulness. 



78 EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTALITIES. 

School punishments should be hygienic. 

1. Unwise punishments injure the health of teacher and pupil. 

2. Punishments should be full of encouragement. 

How to keep well. 

1. Select healthy parents. 

2. Keep the machine in order. 

3. Clean out the cinders. 

4. Take a bath each morning. 

5. Go to bed early and take abundant sleep. 

6. Refuse to be unhappy. 

Longevity of college graduates and great thinkers. 

Laws of health. 

1. A well-regulated mind. 

2. A resolute will. 

3. Love in all innocent forms. 
4- Balanced culture. 

5. Throwing off trouble. 

Never use tobacco. 

1. Tobacco users do not excel in physical proicess. 

2. Tobacco users fail to graduate with honor. 

3. Tobacco is a powerful poison. 

Method of promoting health. 

1. Temperance. 

2. Systematic employment. 

3. Cheerfulness. 
4- Regular hours. 

5. Food. 

6. Excretions. 

7. Watch against colds. 

8. Keep the feet warm and the head cool. 

9. TJie future. 

Earnest words to teachers. 

1. You owe it to yourself and to your school to be healthy. 

2. Train your pupils to live hygienically. 

3. Observe sanitary lavis as to ventilating, lighting, etc. 

4. Study carefully and wisely practice school hygiene. 



PART II. 
SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 



CHAPTER I.— Preparatory Work. 
II. — School Tactics. 
III. — School Classification". 
IV. — Opening Exercises, Seating, and Recesses. 
V. — First Day of School. 
VI. — Practical Suggestions by Practical Teachers. 



PART SECOND. 
SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 



School Organization" is the systemization of school 
work. The object is to secure constant employment, effi- 
cient instruction, and moral control. Everything is to be 
so adjusted as to remove friction, induce order, and secure 
cheerful and effective work. The office of the school is 
to develop the pupils physically, mentally, and morally. 
To this end all its arrangements are directed. Thorough 
organization is an essential condition of success. Defec- 
tive organization is a fruitful source of failure in school 
management. The proper organization of an ungraded 
school, even to the experienced teacher, is not an easy 
task. The solution of this problem is the first work of the 
teacher. A school well organized becomes a kind of 
mechanical power, having for its working force the exu- 
berant energies of childhood and youth, and for its in- 
telligent direction the boundless influence of the wise 
teacher. The faithful teacher will devote all his efforts 
to securing right answers to the following questions : 

1. Are your educational instrumentalities the best you 
can command ? 

2. Are your business arrangements satisfactory ? 



82 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

3. Have you mastered a system of school tactics ? 

4. Are your pupils properly seated ? 

5. Are your pupils wisely classified ? 

6. Have you adopted sensible regulations ? 

7. Is your programme well planned ? 



CHAPTER I. 

PREPARATORY "WORK. 



Before entering upon the direct work of school organi- 
zation, important preliminaries demand attention. 

I. Teacher's Qualifications. — The great want 
everywhere is competent teachers. Give us competent 
teachers, and all obstacles to educational progress can be 
overcome. The teacher should have : 

1. Vigorous Health. The labor is necessarily severe, 
taxing to the utmost the strongest men and women. 
There is no profession so exacting, none that breaks men 
and women down so early, as that of faithful teaching. 
The cheerfulness, the vigor, the versatility, and the en- 
durance essential to success can come only of good health. 

2. Knowledge of the Brandies. The teacher needs 
not only to have a thorough knowledge of the branches 
to be taught, but also a fair knowledge of the cognate 
branches. To be able to teach well, one must be at once 
master of the text-book and the subject. It is worse 
than folly for one who is not a scholar to assume the re- 
sponsibilities of the teacher. 

3. Skill in Teaching. Teaching is the art of human 
development. Methods of teaching are the ways in which 



PREPARATORY WORK. 83 

educational means are applied to educational ends. "In 
education method is everything," says Everett. From 
the want of method and skill, the most scholarly teachers 
often make the most striking failures : they know, but they 
can not cause others to know. With them teaching is an 
undiscovered art. The teacher needs to observe, read, 
think, practice. He needs to sit at the feet of Jesus, of 
Aristotle, of Socrates, and of Pestalozzi, and learn meth- 
ods from the masters. 

4. Skill in Management. Here, good sense and tact 
have boundless scope. Nowhere are the far-reaching 
deductions of philosophy and the grand generalizations of 
experience more needed. To manage a school is not less 
difficult than to manage a state. To place a raw recruit 
in command of an army would be eminent wisdom in com- 
parison with the practice of placing green boys and girls 
in charge of our schools. Unfortunately, our schools are 
largely conducted by young persons just from the district 
school, with a mere smattering knowledge of the common 
branches, and utterly ignorant of the laws of culture, of 
right methods of teaching, and of true school manage- 
ment. They necessarily blunder, and waste, and mar. 

II. Securing Positions. — Teaching is both a pro- 
fession and a business. Business sense and teaching sense 
are equally necessary to success. The best teachers are 
proverbially modest, and shrink from the rough jostlings 
of their inferiors — hence, are often doomed to "waste 
their sweetness on the desert air." Duty should prevail. 
Diffidence should yield to conviction. No legitimate ef- 
fort should be spared to secure a position where most can 
be accomplished. A few suggestions may not be consid- 
ered out of place : 

1. Suitable Position. The right teacher in the right 



84 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

place is a desideratum in education. By attempting too 
much you may endanger all. You should have a school 
that you can manage and hold. This will enable you to 
grow and to make a reputation. 

2. Line of Promotion. You can afford to begin with 
a humble position and work up. The best officers often 
come from the ranks. A city superintendent is better for 
having taught in all the grades. A teacher should prepare 
himself for the best positions, and then secure a place, if 
possible, in the line of promotion. Abundant room will 
always be found in the upper stories of our profession. 
Merit and pluck will win. Large fields of usefulness, as 
well as good salaries, await talent and well-directed effort. 

3. Few Recommendations. JSTo one who has not taught 
successfully should ask a recommendation. Life is too 
short to read bundles of recommendations. All you need 
is a modest diploma from an institution that does not 
deal in compliments, and a single paragraph from a re- 
sponsible educator as to teaching ability and success. The 
rest you must do for yourself. 

4. Apply in Person. As a rule, this is best for young 
teachers. Little attention is usually paid to applications 
by letter. The board want to see you and converse with 
you. Be modest in your pretensions and promises. You 
can safely say that you have tried to prepare yourself for 
the work, and that you will spare no effort to succeed. 
After you make a reputation positions will seek you. 

5. Never Undermine or Underbid. You can not af- 
ford, directly or indirectly, to undermine or underbid a 
fellow teacher. As a band of honorable men and women, 
we must work together. We must scorn everything 
mean and unworthy. We dare not stoop to the low tricks 
of petty politicians. 



PREPARATORY WORK. 85 

6. Permanent Position. Persistently seek promotion 
until you secure a satisfactory position. Make this per- 
manent. To retain the teacher for a series of years is best 
for all concerned. The precariousness of the teacher's 
position is a blight upon the profession and upon the 
cause of education. Frequent changes are always a calam- 
ity, and are sometimes a disgrace. Secure a position that 
will require all your powers, and to which you can gladly 
devote your best efforts. 

III. Contract with the School-Board. — Teach- 
ing is a business. Money paid for educational purposes 
is an investment. School-taxes pay the highest returns 
of all investments. Only the very ignorant or extremely 
stupid consider school-taxes an expense. Intelligent 
school-boards seek to so manage the funds as to obtain the 
best results from the money invested. Hasten the day 
when our best and wisest citizens will everywhere compose 
our school-boards ! Teachers should meet school-boards 
on business principles. A written contract should be en- 
tered into as soon as the position is accepted. In addition 
to the usual specifications as to time, wages, and care of 
grounds, building, and apparatus, it may often prove ad- 
vantageous to add such items as the following : 

1. Agreement as to Fuel. " It is further agreed that 
the fuel shall be abundant, of good quality, and kept under 
shelter ready for use." Half the schools of the country, 
to a greater or less extent, neglect this provision. Esti- 
mate, if you can, the resulting loss in time, comfort, and 
health. 

2. Agreement as to Janitor Work. Two plans are 
pursued. The board agrees to pay for this work, or the 
teacher agrees to pay for it. In the latter case the salary 
must be increased to meet the cost. Pupils can not be 



86 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

required to make fires and sweep. It is no part of the 
teacher's duty. Besides, he can not afford to do it ; all 
his energies are required for preparation and school work. 
A small sum paid for janitor work to a reliable boy is 
good economy. In graded schools, and in all higher 
institutions, janitors are employed and paid by the boards. 
Only the underpaid and overworked country teacher is 
compelled to serve as janitor. This custom is a serious 
evil, and should be speedily abandoned. 

3. Agreement as to Apparatus. With a school-room 
well heated, well ventilated, well seated, and well supplied 
with the necessary apparatus, a good teacher can accom- 
plish as much in four months as he otherwise could in 
six. 

4. Agreement as to Power of Suspension. " It is fur- 
ther agreed that the teacher shall have power to suspend 
incorrigible pupils, subject to the action of the board." 
This clause will strengthen the teacher's power of control, 
and may save trouble. 

5. Agreement as to Resignation. Failing to give satis- 
faction, the teacher agrees to resign at the end of any 
month. In case the teacher is dissatisfied for good cause, 
the school-board agrees to accept his resignation at the 
end of any month. In either case, notice must be given 
at least two weeks beforehand. This arrangement is 
deemed just; it is business. It will tend to make the 
teacher's position more permanent, and vastly more satis- 
factory. Teachers will cease to be treated as menials, 
patronized, snubbed, and turned off. This is an honora- 
ble method of canceling the contract, and it will pre- 
vent all litigation and trouble. School-boards will be 
careful to select good teachers, and teachers will be care- 
ful to seek positions for which they are qualified. 



PREPARATORY WORK. 87 

Practical. — If modestly urged, school-boards will usually con- 
sent to the insertion in the contract of such items as are given 
above. Custom will give these addenda the force of law, and a 
world of friction will be prevented. 

IV. Plan" of the Campaign. — To you success is 
more important than money. You should spare no effort 
to make failure impossible. Much depends on a well- 
digested plan. As a general plans a campaign, so must 
you plan your work. Usually it will be necessary for you 
to spend several days among your patrons before your 
school opens. Eemember that what the teacher does not 
do, or manage to have done, will generally be left un- 
done. 

1. The Building. Manage to have this placed in good 
condition. Let the school- room be clean, orderly, and 
cheerful, to begin with, and keep it so. 

2. The Apparatus. If necessary, have the black- 
boards slated ; secure erasers and crayons. If there is no 
library room, procure a case for the apparatus, and an- 
other for the library and cabinet. Have everything in 
readiness for use. 

3. Boohs and Slates. Precious time may be saved by 
so arranging that the pupils can have their books the 
first day. Otherwise it is difficult to properly organize 
the school. Dealers will be glad to furnish you the books. 
You can supply the pupils and collect the money. Even 
if you lose a dollar or two, it will pay you. 

4. Enlist Patrons. When they see that you mean 
business, that you are not afraid of extra work, and that 
you esteem success more than money, your patrons will 
gladly aid you. The interests are mutual. 

5. Programme. The course of study and programme 
demand your best thought. These are vital parts of your 



88 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

plan. You may ascertain so fully the work to be done 
during the term, that you can prepare a programme that 
will require but little change. 

6. Plan for each Branch. The work you propose to 
do throughout the term should be well considered and 
wisely planned, and the what, the how, and the how 
much thought out in detail. What is your plan for 
language lessons ? arithmetic ? geography ? oral work ? 
Much must be left to be developed from week to week, 
but a well-matured general plan is essential to success. 
Mere text-book routine — assigning pages and hearing 
recitations — belongs to a past age. You must teach. 

7. Remove Obstacles. Stand above neighborhood ani- 
mosities. Antagonize no one. Quietly make friends of 
all. Unite all in the school work. Prudently grapple 
with obstacles to success, and if possible remove them. 

8. A good Boarding-place. The teacher needs much 
time for preparation and study. He should have a room 
to himself. Growing men and women are the only ones 
fit for teachers. Growth implies study; study implies 
facilities. Even if the cost is greater, a good home is in- 
dispensable. 

9. First Day. Have your plan well matured for this 
day of days. Secure a large attendance at the beginning. 
When at all possible, each pupil should be in attendance 
on the first day. No effort to this end should be spared. 
Too much importance can not be attached to the first day 
of school. Do the best work of which you are capable 
during this and each succeeding day, and you will not 
fail to win success. 



preparatory work. 89 

Topical Keview. — Preparatory Work. 

Introduction. 

1. Definition. 2. Objects. 

3. Importance. 4- Se ven Topics. 

Qualifications of the teacher. 

1. Vigorous health. 2. Thorough knowledge. 

3. Skill in teaching. 4- Skill in management. 

Securing a position. 

1. Secure a position for which you are qualified. 

2. Secure a position in the line of promotion. 

3. Garry few recommendations. 

4. The young teacher should apply in person. 

5. Never undermine or underbid. 

6. Secure a position that you can make permanent. 

Contract with school-board. 

1. Agreement as to fuel. 

2. Agreement as to janitor work. 

3. Agreement as to apparatus. 

4- Agreement as to power of suspension. 
5. Agreement as to resignation. 

Plan of the campaign. 

1. See that the building is in good condition. 

2. See that the apparatus is ready for use. 

3. Arrange to have books and slates. 

4. Enlist patrons. 

5. Arrange a programme. 

6. Make a plan for each branch. 

7. Remove obstacles. 

8. Secure a suitable boarding-place. 

9. Have a well-matured plan for the first day of school. 

Additional instruction. 

1. The instructor will call attention to the requirements of the school 

law of the State. 

2. Teaching as a business will be discussed. 

8. Means of meeting local difficulties will be considered. 
4. A noble professional spirit will be inculcated. 



90 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

CHAPTER II. 

SCHOOL TACTICS. 

School Tactics is a system of signals and movements 
adapted to school work. Proper school tactics save time, 
impart vigor, improve the appearance and spirit of the 
school, and train to the habit of exact and prompt obedi- 
ence. Order results from system. A want of system in 
the movements of the school is a prolific source of confu- 
sion. The teacher, not less than the military commander, 
needs to be master of well-planned tactics. In organizing 
the school, from the first moment, the pupils should be 
carefully trained in school tactics. Because of its neglect 
we emphasize this subject. 

School tactics should not be arbitrary. Principles 
should determine the movements and the signals. Even 
children ought to be able to perceive the fitness of the 
tactics. 

Principles pertaining to School Tactics. 

1. School Tactics should he Uniform. So far as ap- 
plicable, the tactics should be the same in all schools. 
The tactics of the army are the same throughout the na- 
tion. The combinations and changes of teachers and pu- 
pils continually going on demand the same uniformity 
for the schools. Variety in instruction, but uniformity 
in movement, is a desideratum in school management. 

2. Each Movement should he necessitated hy the School 
Work. All movements for mere display must be dis- 
carded. The necessity for each movement should be ap- 
parent. All changes should be effected in the shortest 
time consistent with propriety and good order. 



SCHOOL TACTICS. 91 

3. The Signals should be Few and Significant. The 
correctness of this principle will hardly be questioned, 
but in practice its violation is almost universal. Some 
schools use more than one hundred arbitrary signals. 
The waste of time and energy is immense. 

The Signals aee foe Children. Many signals confuse, and 
to master them wastes much of the energy of teacher and pupils. 

Pupils are continually entering the school. Significant signals 
need no explanation. Arbitrary signals, such as counting, or tap- 
ping the bell, must be explained many times. From force of habit 
many teachers will continue to use the bell, but the general use of 
significant signals is only a question of time. The teacher who 
once tries them will always use them. In the following system 
the arbitrary signals in common use are omitted. The place for 
the bell is clearly indicated. 

4. Each Movement should have its own Signdl. When 
a given signal is always used for the same movement, the 
pupil learns to respond almost mechanically. Confusion 
is avoided, and the utmost simplicity is reached. 

5. The Signal should be given with the Falling Inflec- 
tion, and in a low, firm Tone* The elocution of the 
teacher is an important factor in the government of the 
school. The thin faltering tone and rising inflection 
cause even the children to smile, but good elocution com- 
mands respect and obedience. 

6. All Movements should be executed quietly, quickly, 
and with Military Precision. The noisy, slovenly move- 
ments of some schools are distressing. The results are 
disorder, a lack of interest, and bad habits. 

Precision sustains Inteeest. The old veteran never wearies 
of going through the manual of arms. Good penmen and musi- 
cians never lose interest in their arts. Strictly observe this prin- 
ciple, and your pupils will be delighted, will acquire the habit of 



92 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

prompt and cheerful obedience, and the appearance and spirit of 
your school will be vastly improved. Extremes must be avoided. 
Never allow your pupils to " walk on their toes." This practice 
makes pupils hobble, and prevents an elegant gait in walking. 
Pupils can move quietly and still walk naturally. 

7. Movements should follow Signals. This principle 
requires the observance of the following points : 

(1.) No movement must be permitted except in obe- 
dience to a signal. Otherwise confusion reigns. 

(2.) The movement ordered must be executed before 
the next signal is given. Allow sufficient time for prompt 
execution. 

(3.) Never for a moment tolerate disobedience, or care- 
lessness, or slovenliness. One negligent pupil may demor- 
alize an entire school. 

A System of School Tactics. 
( 1. Ring bell. 

I. Calling School. J 2 ' Give time to assem ^ e - 

j 3. Attention (command by voice, 

[ or bell, or clock). 

1. Ring Bell. In small schools the teacher ordinarily 
rings the bell. If a pupil can be trained to do this, it is 
better, as it enables the teacher to devote his time and 
energies to other work. But it must be considered an 
honor, and one pupil should not be continued in the posi- 
tion too long. No one must ring the bell except the 
pupil designated. 

2. Give Time to Assemble. From two to five minutes 
are necessary. Small schools can assemble in from two 
to three minutes. In large graded schools the pupils form 
in lines and march to their respective rooms. In all 



SCHOOL TACTICS. 93 

schools the pupils must pass to their places in an orderly 
manner. 

3. Attention. The clock indicates that the time is 
up. At the stroke of the programme clock, or at the 
word "Attention," or at the tap of the bell, there is abso- 
lute stillness. The teacher gives the necessary directions, 
and all enter upon the work of the hour. 

Eemaeks. — 1. The same order is observed, morning, noon, 
and after each rest. 2. Those not in seats when the signal for 
attention is given are tardy. 3. No boisterous conduct must be 
permitted while assembling. 4. In large schools, at the close of 
all recesses, the pupils form in lines and march in regular order 
to their rooms. They should be trained to stand and walk erect, 
with shoulders thrown back, hands by sides, and eyes to the front. 

1. School, attention! 

2. {General business.) 

3. Arrange desks. 
If.. Ready. 

5. Rise. 

6. March. 



II. Dismissing School. < 



1. School, Attention! All sit erect and await orders. 
A slight tap of the bell may be substituted for this signal. 
The stroke of the programme clock or of the electric 
bell is a still better substitute. 

2. General Business. Here the teacher makes such 
remarks as may be deemed necessary, and attends to mat- 
ters pertaining to discipline, etc. Be exceedingly brief. 
Be certain you haye something to say ; otherwise say mp- 
thing. 

3. Arrange Desks. Books to be left are quietly placed 
in desks, and others are arranged for carrying. Division 
leaders distribute hats, wraps, etc. If the building is 



94 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

properly arranged, this is unnecessary, as each one can take 
his things as he passes out. 

4. Ready. All prepare to rise. All is stillness and 
readiness. 

5. Rise. Simultaneously all rise, and each turns in 
the direction in which he is to move. A signal for turn- 
ing is unnecessary. 

6. March. It is best to count, 1, 2, 3, 4 — 1, 2, 3, 4, 
and at the second 1 have all step off with the left foot, 
and keep time to counting. After the first week, the 
school will be able to march to music. Let the divisions 
follow each other, so as to have all move at once. Where 
the school has two cloak-rooms and two entrances, the 
pupils can be dismissed quickly and orderly. 

Eemaeks. — 1. Observe the same order in dismissing at recesses, 
at noon, and at the close of school. 2. Order in dismissing adds 
much to the character of the school. 3. By observing system, 
many colleges might avoid those fearful rushes and daily mobs. 



ILL Calling Classes. < 



1. Ready. 

2. Rise. 

3. Pass. 



1. Ready. Before giving this signal the teacher may 
name the class. This will not be necessary after all be- 
come familiar with the programme. Each member of the 
class instantly takes a position ready to rise. 

2. Rise. All rise at the same instant, and each steps 
into the aisle, and turns in the direction in which he is 
expected to move. 

3. Pass. Quietly and quickly all pass to recitation 
seats, or to places at the board. Below the high school, 
classes will usually pass directly to the board. The teacher 



SCHOOL TACTICS. 95 

will so plan as to avoid confusion. At the board, each 
stands facing the teacher, and awaits orders. 

Bemaeks. — In the same way have the class move from recita- 
tion seat to board, omitting the first signal. Some teachers move 
their classes by calling the pupils one by one, thus wasting pre- 
cious time and showing a great lack of managing power. 



IV. Dismissing Classes. < 



1. Ready. 

2. Rise, or Turn. 

3. Pass, or Seats. 



1. Ready. The board will be cleared before this com- 
mand is given. As this signal is never given except when 
the pupils are about to move, no misunderstanding can 
occur. 

2. Rise, or Turn. The pupils rise and turn if on 
recitation seats. If the class is at the board, Turn is the 
signal given. 

3. Pass, or Seats. In dismissing a class, Pass is always 
used ; in sending the class from boards to recitation seats, 
Seats is the signal. The order of passing will be so ar- 
ranged as to consume the least time and avoid confusion. 
Some teachers have the pupils stand after passing to 
desks, and at the signal Seats all take seats at once. 

Class Symmetet. — Place the tallest in the middle of the class, 
and the others each way according to height. The reverse order 
is equally good. Tou secure symmetry, and each pupil always 
knows his place. Since " turning down " has been abandoned, this 
arrangement of classes is becoming general. 

Steaight Lines. — By this is understood that pupils shall stand 
in lines parallel with the boards. It requires tact to train pupils 
to keep this position. Avoid the mistake of constantly telling. 
Avoid the mistake of " toeing the mark " and of " keeping the feet 
in the same position." No lounging must be permitted. Ap- 



96 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

pearance as well as health requires the erect position. Have your 
pupils always stand and sit erect, and the position will soon be- 
come habitual. 



V. Boaed Tactics. < 



1. Board. 

2. Erase. 

3. Write, etc. 

4. Attention/ 



1. Board. All turn to the left, to be in position to 
erase or write. Train all to turn quietly, quickly, and 
gracefully. 

2. Erase., This signal may include the first. When 
facing the teacher, it means to turn to the board and 
erase. The eraser is pressed on the board, and drawn 
down, thus avoiding dust. There should be an eraser for 
each pupil in the class, and a trough beneath the board 
for crayons and erasers. At the signals Board and Erase, 
pupils pass from recitation seats to board, and erase. 

3. Write, Solve, etc. Before beginning the work the 
class may or may not be divided into groups of two or 
more each, and work assigned accordingly. The signal 
given will depend upon the work to be done. 

4. Attention ! All instantly turn to the right. No 
one must wait even to finish a figure. All face the teacher 
and await orders. 

Eemaeks. — 1. The skillful teacher uses the board almost con- 
stantly. 2. Lack of system in board tactics is a very common fault. 
Confusion, dilatory movements, and waste of time are the results. 
8. A green boy in charge of a regiment, and a stupid teacher in 
charge of a class, are ridiculous and pitiable spectacles. 4. Board 
tactics must vary somewhat with the grade of the class and the 
subject taught. 5. Each pupil may be trained to grade his own 
recitation. If he misses one question, but answers four correctly, 



SCHOOL TACTICS. 



97 



he writes the fraction four fifths. The teacher simply records re- 
sults. This plan works well in spelling, arithmetic, geography, 
and grammar; use it judiciously. 



VI. Hastd Tactics. < 



I. Up. 



II. Doivn. 



1. To answer. 

2. To criticise. 

3. To ask question. 

4. To concur or oppose. 

1. When recognized. 

2. When one is called. 



I. Hands up. No one speaks without permission. 
This regulation is imperative and absolute. In all cases 
the desire to speak is indicated by raising the right hand. 

1. The pupil raises his hand whenever prepared to 
answer the question or do the work required. All should 
be made to realize that it is wrong and dangerous to raise 
the hand unless prepared. 

2. Each pupil is held responsible for each answer. 
All that object to the answer given raise their hands ; but 
no hands are raised till the pupil has finished ; otherwise 
hand-raising becomes prompting. Any one wishing to 
offer a criticism raises the hand. A failure to raise the 
hand indicates approval. 

3. The pupil wishes to ask a question. The desire is 
indicated by raising the hand. 

II. Hands down. 1. Whenever the teacher recognizes 
the pupil, the hand is dropped. 2. When any one is called 
to answer, all hands are dropped. 

Remakes. — 1. The hand should he held as high as the head, 

and held still. 2. Snapping fingers must never he tolerated. 3. 

Pupils not raising hands should frequently he called. 4. The 

teacher should he wide awake, so as to see all hands as soon aa 

5 



98 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

raised. 5. Pupils must not raise hands except for good cause. 
Timid and dull pupils must be encouraged. 



VII. Concert Tactics. < 



1. Class, or School. 

2. Division one, etc. 
Boys, Girls. 



o. 



Jf.. (Class devices.) 



1. Class. All answer. In general exercises for the 
entire school, substitute school for class. 

2. Division one, etc. The school and the classes are 
separated into several divisions, and the divisions may be 
subdivided into sections. " Division," "■ Section," are 
the respective signals. 

3. Boys, Girls. Sometimes it has a good effect to 
call on the boys and girls to answer in turn. Ladies, 
Gentlemen, are signals used for advanced classes. 

4. Class Devices. It is an excellent device to divide a 
class into groups of two or more each. At the signal 
Ones, the ones recite to the other members of their respec- 
tive groups. So with the twos, etc. Much individual 
work is thus secured. Use this process sparingly, and 
use much vigilance. 

Eemaeks. — 1. No one must answer unless called upon. 2. The 
running fire kept up between a random teacher and his class is 
absurd enough. Avoid much concert work. Use it for spice and 
drill, but do not rely upon it. Let concert answers be given in a 
low, distinct tone. Check all tendencies to sing-song. 

Results. — A few hours of faithful study and a few 
weeks of careful practice will enable even inexperienced 
teachers to master school tactics. Soon you can work 
easily and vigorously. The tone and appearance of your 
school will be wonderfully improved, and your efficiency 
as a teacher will be largely augmented. 



SCHOOL TACTICS. 99 

Topical Eeview. — School Tactics. 

Introduction. 

1. Definition. 2. Basis. 3. Value. 

Principles. 

1. School tactics should be uniform. 

2. Each movement should be necessitated by school work. 

3. The signals should be few and significant. 

4. Each movement should have its own signal. 

5. Signals should be given with the falling infection, and in a low, 

firm tone. 

6. Movements should be executed quietly, quickly, and with precision. 

7. Movements should follow signals. 

Calling school. 

1. Ring bell. 2. Give time to assemble. 

3. Attention — command by voice, bell, or clock. 
Dismissing school. 

1. School, attention! or tap bell. 2. General business. 

3. Arrange desks. 4- Ready. 5. Rise. 

6. March. 1, 2, 3, 4 — I> %y 3, 4 — count. TJie school will march 
to music. 
Calling classes. 

1. Ready. 2. Rise. 3. Pass. 

Dismissing classes. 

1. Ready. 2. Rise, or turn. 3. Pass, or seats. 

Board tactics. 

1. Board. 2. Erase. 3. Write, etc. 

4. Attention. 
Hand tactics. 

I. Hands up. 

1. To answer. 2. To criticise. 3. To ask question. 

4- To concur or oppose. 

II. Hands down. 

1. When one is recognized. 2. When one is called. 

Concert tactics. 

1. Class, or school. 2. Division one, etc. 

3. Boys, girls ; ladies, gentlemen. 4- Class devices. 



100 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

CHAPTEE III. 

SCHOOL CLASSIFICATION". 

School Classification is the grouping of the pupils 
for school work according to age, ability, and scholarship. 
Wise classification puts each child in its proper place. 
Two distinct plans are pursued — close classification and 
loose classification. On the first plan the pupil makes 
equal advancement in the several branches of the course ; 
on the second plan the pupil is permitted to advance in 
certain branches without reference to his attainments in 
the other branches. In all elementary schools the classi- 
fication should be close, never loose. As a basis, attention 
is invited to the following : 

I. Principles relating to School Classification. 

1. Uniformity. — The Several Branches should he kept 
Abreast. The phase of the several branches pursued must 
be the same. It is not uncommon to find pupils well ad- 
vanced in arithmetic, but extremely backward in other 
branches, or well advanced in geography, but deficient 
in arithmetic. These unfortunates should be so classed 
as to give the greater part of their time to subjects in 
which they are deficient. The application of this princi- 
ple will work a much-needed revolution in our ungraded 
schools. 

2. Adaptation. — The Pupil should be placed in Classes 
adapted to his Ability and Advancement. If classed too 
low, the pupil is not stimulated to effort ; if classed too 
high, he is apt to become confused and discouraged. 
Nothing succeeds like success. Each pupil should be so 
classed as to become a success in his classes. The appli- 
cation of this principle requires sound judgment and a 



SCHOOL CLASSIFICATION. 101 

profound study of child-nature. Classification can never 
be done by machinery. 

3. Criteria. — Age, Ability, and Scholarship deter- 
mine the Classification. Other things being equal, older 
pupils are classed higher than younger, and strong bright 
pupils higher than delicate or dull ones. The reasons 
are apparent. To consider scholarship alone is a grave, 
though common error. Examinations, oral and written, 
give some of the conditions ; but to ignore ability is to 
fail to reach the correct solution. Study the child. 

4. Standard. — Reading and Arithmetic are made the 
Standard of Classification. All the pupils in the elemen- 
tary school are in these branches. Ignorance of thesej 
bars progress in other studies. The judicious teacher will 
give due weight to the pupil's advancement in other 
branches ; some may be worked up, others merely re- 
viewed. Complete adjustment may be secured by firm- 
ness and a few months of hard work. 

5. Number of Classes. — As few Classes should be 
Organized as is Consistent with good Grading. Upon 
this principle depends largely the efficiency of the un- 
graded school. Numerous classes fritter away the time 
of the teacher without producing satisfactory results. 
Uniformity of text-books, wise combinations, and practi- 
cal devices enable the competent teacher to reach a high 
standard of efficiency even in a large ungraded school. 

6. Size of Classes. — Medium-sized Classes are Best. 
Each Pujnl must be reached Individually during the Reci- 
tation. In very large classes this can not well be done. 
In very small classes it is difficult to maintain sufficient 
interest on the part of teacher and pupils. A class num- 
bering from ten to thirty is most desirable. Avoid, if 
possible, organizing classes for three or four pupils. As 



102 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

a rule, from five to ten should be the minimum number 
in any class, where the school is large. 

7. Adjustment. — The Work must be Adjusted to the 
Abilities and Tastes of Different Pupils. Some excel 
in language, but have no taste for arithmetic. The mini- 
mum amount of work in arithmetic and the maximum 
amount in language should be required of such. So in 
other branches. 

Study tour Pupils. — "You go into your school-room, and, 
after a superficial observation, you conclude, 'These scholars are 
just like the ones I had last term — are of the same grade and age ' ; 
and you will commence running in the old groove. This is a great 
mistake. Of the myriads of beautiful flowers that adorn the earth, 
there are no two alike ; so it is as regards children : there are no 
duplicates in God's creation. Every child that comes into this 
world is a new combination of elements. Your first and most 
important duty is to study the nature of each scholar ; study the 
characteristics that are peculiar to each, that you may know how 
to awaken their nobler emotions, and adjust the work to each one's 
wants." Your classification will thus become truly artistic. The 
school is for the children, and not the children for the school. 

II. Divisions in Ungraded Schools. — The elemen- 
tary-school course extends through eight years, and each 
year is considered a grade. The ungraded school is ar- 
ranged in four divisions, each division including two 
years. With reference to these divisions and grades the 
course of study is arranged, the programme constructed, 
and the school classified. 

D Division. — This division includes all the pupils in 
the first and second years of the course. As a rule, the 
pupils are from six to eight years of age. In some 
branches it may be necessary to teach the first and second 
grades separately. In reading, the first grade will have the 



SCHOOL CLASSIFICATION. 103 

First Eeader ; the second grade, the Second Reader. In 
other subjects these grades may recite together. Even in 
reading, whenever possible, these grades should be com- 
bined. (See "Course of Study" and "Programme.") 

C Division. — All pupils in the third and fourth years, 
usually from eight to ten years old, are placed in this di- 
vision. The Third Eeader, Primary Arithmetic, and Pri- 
mary Geography sufficiently indicate the work. The 
third and fourth grades may be kept in the same classes 
in all their studies. 

B Division. — This division includes those in the fifth 
and sixth years, usually from ten to twelve years of age. 
Fourth Reader, Advanced Arithmetic, and Advanced 
Geography indicate the work. 

A Division. — Those in the seventh and eighth years, 
as a rule from twelve to fourteen years old, are embraced 
in this division. In some subjects the A and B divisions 
will recite together. As each division embraces two 
grades, it may become important to keep the grades dis- 
tinct by dividing each class into two sections, designated 
seventh grade and eighth grade. (See how to use " Course 
of Study" and "Programme.") 

III. Temporary Classification. — Permanent clas- 
sification is not possible at the first. The teacher goes to 
work vigorously and approximates a proper classification. 
The young teacher may profit by the following sugges- 
tions : 

1. Follow the Classification of your Predecessor. If 
this has been reasonably good, it will give you a good 
basis on which to build. The pupils will readily fall into 
line, and further classification will not be difficult. 

2. Carefully Plan the Organization of a New School. 
Where the school has not been classified, you will need to 



104 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

be well prepared for the work. A week spent in the dis- 
trict before the term begins will enable you to secure the 
necessary data and form the necessary plans. 

3. Have it Understood that the Classification is Tem- 
porary. This will prevent dissatisfaction. Very soon 
you expect to reach a proper classification. Endeavor to 
so classify the pupils that few changes will be necessary, 
and that changes will be promotions rather than demo- 
tions. 

IV. Permanent Classification. — From day to day, 
as you learn the true places of pupils, you promote or 
demote until all are properly classified. This work should 
approach completion during the first week. As new pu- 
pils come in, you will take time and care to place them in 
the right classes. Pupils who show themselves worthy 
will be promoted whenever you deem it best. 

V. Classification of an Ungraded School. — 
You have studied the principles pertaining to classifica- 
tion, and are familiar with the condition of your school. 
You have your plans well matured. After the opening 
exercises you at once proceed to classify your forty pupils. 

1. You first Classify in the Leading Branches. These 
are reading, arithmetic, geography, and language. Each 
of these branches embraces the entire school. You at 
once put all to work. 

2. Beginning ivith the A Division, you proceed to D. 
While organizing the A's the other divisions will be inter- 
ested observers. You remind the other divisions that, 
when called, they will be expected to observe the direc- 
tions given to the A division. The A's when sent to seats 
will study the lesson assigned, and the B's will be called ; 
then the C's, then the D's. The entire school will thus 
be put to work within an hour. 



SCHOOL CLASSIFICATION. 105 

3. Give each Glass a Short Drill, and assign a Lesson. 
You wish to know more about each pupil. A short drill 
will enable you to gain the desired information. Make 
these drills lively. Avoid embarrassing or wearying the 
pupils. Assign a short lesson for study, and give neces- 
sary directions for preparing the lesson. 

4. Promote or Demote as you find it Best. Pupils 
clearly in the wrong class should be changed at once. 
The first day is by far the best time to make changes. 
Say to the pupils that other changes will be made as you 
find it necessary. 

5. During the first Half Day all the Glasses may he 
Organized. During the first week each pupil may be per- 
manently classed. A teacher who requires two or three 
weeks for the organization of a school evidently has mis- 
taken his calling. 

VI. Classification of Ungraded Schools illus- 
trated. — Only the inexperienced need details. One or 
two examples may aid some earnest workers. 

Teacher. — "All who are prepared to read in the 
Fourth or Fifth Header may raise your hands." 

Pupils. — Fifteen pupils raise their hands. 

Teacher. — " Take your Readers. At signals take places 
as directed. Ready ; Rise ; Pass." (Such directions are 
given as will insure order.) 

Pupils. — The pupils pass to places at the board. 

Teacher. — "You may write your names on the board. 
Board; Erase; Write; Attention." 

Pupils. — Each pupil writes his name, and at the signal 
Attention turns, facing the teacher. 

Teacher. — " Turn to page 120 ; read as called." 

Pupils. — Each one reads a short portion. The teacher 
during the reading makes out a roll of the class from 



106 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

the names on the board, and at the same time notices the 
reading. Such as evidently belong to a lower class are 
told to take places in the class to which they belong. 

Teacher. — " Turn to page 30 for the next lesson. You 
may prepare the first and second paragraphs. Notice the 
spelling and meaning of each word. At signals, take 
seats. Board; Erase; Attention; Turn; Pass." 

Pupils. — The class pass to seats, and prepare the lesson 
assigned. 

Teacher. — "Those who are prepared to read in the 
Third Eeader may raise their hands." The same course is 
pursued with this class as with the class in the Fourth 
Eeader. In the same way the classes in the Second and 
First Headers are organized. Now each pupil is at work. 

It is Unnecessary to give Further Details. In a similar 
manner the pupils are classified in other branches, and put to 
work. During the afternoon each class will have a short, lively 
recitation. On the second day you may enter upon the regular 
work with a well-arranged programme. "Wise and prudent man- 
agement will overcome all obstacles. 

VII. Another Practical Illustration.* — Take arithmetic as 
the basis. 

1. Call the A Division. All take places, and write names on 
the board. The class solve and explain a few easy examples. 
Place on the board ten carefully prepared test examples, testing 
the class up to percentage. The class will be seated, and will solve 
the ten examples. 

2. Gall the B Division. Drill in the same way. "Write ten 
examples on the board, testing the class up to fractions. The 
class will take seats, and solve the examples. 

3. Call the C Division. Give a short drill on the board. 
"Write five easy examples to be solved on slates. 

* This is in substance Mr. Holbrook's method, but quite a number of 
changes are inserted. 



SCHOOL CLASSIFICATION. 107 

4. Call the D Division. Interest them. Give them some 
work to copy on slates. 

The entire school is now at work, and is interested and or- 
derly. On no account organize more than four classes in arith- 
metic or in any other branch. 

5. Give a recess of ten minutes. 

6. Call the A and B Divisions. Have a few paragraphs writ- 
ten on the hoard. Call on different pupils to read. Decide which 
you will use, the Fourth or Fifth Reader. Assign lesson. These 
divisions when sent to seats will continue to work on problems, 
and will also prepare their reading lesson. 

7. Call the C Division. Give a short drill on some lesson in 
the Third Eeader. Assign lesson. Send to seats, to prepare read- 
ing lesson and finish examples. 

8. Call the D Division. If possible, place all in either the 
First or Second Reader. If this can not be done, organize classes 
in each, and assign work. Show the pupils how to study. 

9. Give a recess of ten minutes. 

10. Call the A and B Divisions. Give a short drill in geog- 
raphy. Assign a common lesson. Usually you will assign ad- 
vanced work for the A Division, but have them review with the 
B's. 

11. Call the C Division. Give a short drill in primary geogra- 
phy. Assign a suitable lesson. 

12. Call the D Division. Give a lesson on the cardinal points. 

13. Dismiss for noon. 

14. Call the A and B Divisions. Give a drill in composition 
and grammar. Assign a lesson. 

15. Call the C and D Divisions. Give a language lesson. 
Assign some slate-work. 

16. Give ten minutes' recess. 

17. Arrange all the divisions for writing. 

18. Arrange all the divisions for drawing. 

19. Arrange all the divisions for vocal music. 

20. Give ten minutes' 1 recess. 

21. Explain and adopt regulations. 



108 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

22. Dismiss school. 

23. Make out your roll. 

24. Adjust your programme, and place it on the board. 

VIII. The Teacher Classifies. 

1. The Right of the Teacher to Classify is Unques- 
tioned. The pupil is not prepared to choose his stud- 
ies. The dictation of parents would render classification 
impossible. School-boards prescribe courses of study, 
but have no power to direct the classification. This is 
strictly professional work. All rulings or decisions to 
the contrary are discouraging and anti-educational. 

2. The Teacher should conscientiously Classify his 
School, regardless of Fear or Favor. You have but one 
question to consider, "Where does the pupil belong?" 
Your duty to the child, to the parents, to yourself, and 
to the profession requires of you a correct classification. 

3. Manage to avoid Conflicts ivith Pupils or Parents. 
Wise management will usually prevent such conflicts. 
Make no effort to force pupils into branches not generally 
recognized as elementary studies. Drawing, much of the 
oral work, music, etc., in most States, belong to this 
class of studies. Show the advantages of these studies. 
Interest the pupils. Eemove objections. Introduce new 
things gradually. Manage. 

4. Avoid all Demagogic Pedagogy. Classing pupils 
too high, rushing them through books, showy surface 
work, and promoting pupils when not prepared, are base 
unprofessional tricks, and are characteristics of the dema- 
gogue. Popularity gained by thus swindling pupils and 
patrons will not last. Only by conscientiously doing 
thorough and good work can you win a reputation that 
will endure. 



SCHOOL CLASSIFICATION. 109 

Topical Review. — School Classification. 

Introduction. 

1. Definition. 2. Importance. 3. Close, never loose. 

Principles relating to school classification. 

1. Uniformity. — T/ie several branches must be kept abreast. 

2. Adaptation. — Adapt the work to the ability of each child. 

3. Criteria. — Age, ability, and scholarship determine the classification. 
If.. Basis. — Reading and arithmetic are made the basis of classification. 

5. Number of classes. — Organize the smcdlest possible number of 

classes. 

6. Size of classes. — A medium-sized class is best. 

7. Adjustment. — The work must be adjusted to (he taste and capacity 

of the pupils. 

Divisions in ungraded schools. 

1. D division. 2. V division. 3. B division. 4- ■& division. 

Temporary classification. 

1. Follow the classification of your predecessor. 

2. Carefully plan the classification of a new school. 

3. Have it understood that the classification is temporary. 

Permanent classification. 

1. Promote and demote as you find it necessary. 

2. Complete the permanent classification during first week. 

Classification of an ungraded school. 

1. Classify in the leading branches. 

2. Begin with the A division and proceed to the D. 

3. Give each class a short drill, and assign a short lesson. 
4- Promote or demote as you find it best. 

5. During the first half day all classes may be organized. 

Classification of an ungraded school illustrated. 

1. Illustration : Reading. 2. Illustration : Arithmetic. 

The teacher classifies. 

1. The right of the teacher to classify is unquestioned. 

2. The teacher should conscientiously classify the school. 

3. Manage to avoid conflicts with pupils or parents. 
4- Avoid all demagogic pedagogy. 



HO SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

CHAPTER IV. 

OPENING EXERCISES, SEATING, AND RE- 
CESSES. 

Things apparently of little importance often exert 
much influence. Such are the topics discussed in this 
chapter. 

I. Opening Exercises. — These exercises should be 
short, appropriate, and interesting. While made especially 
attractive, they should be systematically directed to moral 
culture. 

1. Roll-Call. This, in any school, should occupy less 
than one minute. In schools of from forty to fifty, it works 
well to have each pupil give his number. In large schools 
the pupils are divided into sections, and the section-lead- 
ers report the absentees. In small schools it is well to 
call all the names once each day. A suitable plot of the 
pupils as seated will enable the teacher to detect absen- 
tees at a glance. 

2. Singing. In the near future, vocal music will be 
taught in all our schools. Its ethical and aesthetical 
value is universally felt, and its place as a part of the 
opening exercises is unquestioned. The unfortunate 
teacher who can not sing must manage to have a pupil 
lead. 

3. Bible-Reading. The Bible is now read without ob- 
jection in a vast proportion of all the schools in the United 
States. By having the exercises at the close of school 
in districts where there are objections, the Bible might be 
advantageously read in most of the remaining schools. 
Pupils whose parents request it could be dismissed before 
the devotional exercises. 



OPENING EXERCISES, SEATING, AND RECESSES, m 

Right Plan. — Our schools must be kept for ever free from all 
trammels of party or sect. The conscientious scruples of pagan 
and Christian, of Catholic and Protestant, of Rationalist and Jew, 
must he respected. But all this, it is believed, may be secured on 
the plan proposed, and still the devotional exercises may be con- 
tinued. In case of opposition to religious exercises, it is best to 
have them at the close of the day's work. By this plan the conflicts 
between the friends and opponents of devotional exercises in public 
schools may, to a great extent, be obviated. Religious exercises 
should never be forced upon an unwilling school or community. 

Moral Substratum (Huxley). — In all our educational systems and 
work, there must be an all-pervading moral substratum. Incomparably 
the best means to this end is the Bible, to be read without note or com- 
ment in all schools. (Substance, not verbatim.) 

4. Prayer. A short, earnest, extemporaneous prayer 
is best. The Lord's Prayer, repeated by the pupils and 
the teacher, is very impressive. Prayer is admissible only 
when the teacher's life accords with his prayers. 

Secularization - of our Schools. — It can not be denied that 
the tendency in this country, as well as in Europe, is to make the 
schools wholly secular. All religious teaching, it is claimed, 
should be remanded to the family, the Sunday-school, and the 
church. This movement seems to me to be an extreme. Society, 
in its protest against bigoted ecclesiasticism and clerical control in 
education, rushes to the other extreme — non-religion. All agree 
that sound morality must be made the very sub-basis of an educa- 
tional system. But how shall we build up moral character if we 
exclude from our schools God, the Bible, responsibility, future 
life ? Utilitarian and philosophic morality in all ages has utterly 
failed to elevate our race. When we teach that the moral universe 
is as real as the physical universe ; that law is simply the Infinite 
Will impressed upon matter and expressed to intelligence ; that the 
very essence of morality is obedience to law ; and that present 
and future happiness result from obedience to law, we reach a 
practical basis for moral elevation as enduring as space and time. 



112 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

II. Methods of Seating. — The seating of the school 
is the embodiment of the teacher's ideal of symmetry and 
fitness. 

1. Seat with Reference to Size. Because of convenience 
and symmetry, this plan is in general use. Accepting this 
as the basis, the thoughtful teacher will make many ex- 
ceptions. 

2. Seat with Reference to Grade. In an ungraded 
school the observance of this direction must, at best, be 
partial. 

3. Seat with Reference to Sex. The orthodox way is 
safest for the young teacher. The boys and girls are seated 
on opposite sides of the room, with a wide aisle between 
them. Having alternate tiers of boys and girls is found 
to work well in the hands of a teacher of culture and 
power. Some teachers secure the best results by having 
the boys and girls occupy alternate seats. 

4. Reserve the Right to Change. It should be well 
understood that the teacher may have a pupil change his 
seat at any time, and without question. The change may 
be made for convenience, or to lessen temptation, or to 
place unruly pupils in the best position to be trained to 
correct habits. 

5. Make the Seating an Educational Means. Let the 
teacher study profoundly the problem of social and moral 
culture. It is within his power to render the seating an 
important educational means. 

Government by Seating. — Control your school by seating it 
properly. As long as your room will admit of it, put but one pupil 
on a seat. When a pupil becomes troublesome to his neighbors, 
remove him to another seat. Place weak pupils with strong 
ones. Place troublesome pupils in seats where they can not give 
trouble. 



OPENING EXEKCISES, SEATING, AND RECESSES. 113 

III. Eecesses. — Eecreation is not less important than 
study. To properly manage recesses is one of the teacher's 
most delicate duties. 

1. Ttvo Recesses, of ten minutes each, during each 
half day, give the best results. Thorough ventilation is 
secured each hour. The pupils are kept fresh, and in a 
condition for vigorous study. Time is gained, not lost. 

2. All should have Recess at the Same Time. The 
grounds and outbuildings should be arranged with this in 
view. Giving the boys and girls separate recesses is an 
educational mistake. 

3. The Teacher Mingles pleasantly with the Pupils, and 
watches over them, during recess. Invigorating plays are 
encouraged, rudeness and improper conduct are reproved. 
The teacher may sometimes join in the amusements, but 
must always maintain the dignity and authority of the 
teacher. Nowhere is the presence of the cultured teacher 
more needed than on the play-grounds. 

True Dignity. — The teacher must not forget that he is at all 
times the teacher. No false idea of friendliness should lead him 
to lay aside the dignity becoming his position. He has a right to 
make as many friends as he chooses among his pupils ; hut he 
should make no confidants among them, nor should he ever so far 
forget himself as to speak slightingly of one pupil to another. 
Personalities on the part of a teacher are always out of place. 

"The teacher should be the friend of the scholar, his com- 
panion, his guide. Did you ever stop to reflect that the child is 
an imitative being, that he is all the time imitating you, and that, 
therefore, you should be constantly upon the very best conduct 
and behavior # Let your example be, in every respect, worthy of 
imitation. It is your duty to make education agreeable. It is no 
use talking all the time about duty. I do not know any duty 
more important for teachers than that of making the school pleas- 
ant." (Ex-Governor Thomas A. Hendricks.) 



114 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

CHAPTER V. 

first day of school. 

The First Day of the School is the most Impor- 
tant Day of the Term. — A good beginning, giving 
favorable first impressions, is a leading element of success. 
The judicious teacher will leave undone nothing within 
his power. 

I. Be Early. — The good teacher will always he early, 
but especially on the first morning : 

1. To See that all is in Readiness. The house should 
be clean and warm, and the furniture and apparatus 
should be arranged for use. 

2. To Welcome the Pupils. A few kind words spoken 
to each one as he comes into the school-room will do 
much good . First impressions are lasting. 

3. To Preserve Order. While cheerful conversation 
and laughter are encouraged, no rude or boisterous con- 
duct must at any time be permitted in the school- 
room. 

II. Welcome Address. — Order is promptly called. 
When all are quiet, you give a short talk, containing ideas 
something like the following : You are glad to meet the 
pupils. You will do all you can to help them. Do they 
wish to learn ? Will each one help to make this the best 
school in the country ? The address should be simply an 
earnest talk with the pupils, and of not more than five 
minutes' length. Short and appropriate opening exer- 
cises should follow the address. 

III. Follow your Plan. — By following a well-di- 
gested plan, the young teacher may avoid a world of em- 
barrassment. There is no hesitancy ; not a moment is 



FIRST DAT OF SCHOOL. 115 

lost. Vigorous work forestalls mischief. The following 
outline must be so changed as to be made specific : 

1. After the opening exercises, seat the pupils. 

2. Classify the school, and assign lessons. As each 
class is called, give a short drill. This will recmire all of 
the forenoon. 

3. Have short recitations of all the classes during the 
afternoon. Follow a special programme. 

4. Make school tactics a specialty during the first 
week. 

5. During the last half hour adopt regulations. 

6. Leave nothing foreseeable to the impulse of the 
moment. " What to do ? " " When to do it ? " and " How 
to do it ? " must be thought out before entering the school- 
room. Observe and study the }3lans of others, but mature 
and follow your own. 

IV. Be Self-possessed and Detekmined. (Phelps.) — " To 
the young teacher, the first day is an eventful one. Much de- 
pends on the impressions he makes when he appears for the first 
time before his charge. Every precaution should therefore he 
taken to secure pleasant and favorable impressions. The plans 
for the day should be carefully considered and deliberately exe- 
cuted. Nothing should be left to the impulse of the moment. In 
calling the school to order, let a quiet and self-possessed demeanor 
be practiced. If possible, the presence of one or more of the 
school officers should be secured, through whom an introduction 
to the children, accompanied by such remarks as occasions of the 
kind sanction, would be eminently proper. Let these proceedings 
be followed by a few simple and fitting words by the teacher, ex- 
planatory of the mutual duties and relations of instructor and 
pupils. This may be followed by some appropriate general exer- 
cise, as singing, led by the teacher. By this means embarrassment 
may be dispelled, and a bond of sympathy established between the 
parties who are to be so intimately associated in the future. If 



116 SCHOOL OEGANIZATION. 

the first effort be not entirely satisfactory, try again, and again, 
until sufficient confidence is gained to render further intercourse 
pleasant and free. If singing be not practicable, select some other 
exercise, in which the teacher himself is efficient. Nothing should 
be undertaken in which the instructor is not competent to lead 
and inspire confidence. A hesitating and uncertain manner will 
be quickly detected by the children, and will be fatal to that en- 
tire confidence which a teacher should ever be able to command.'" 

V. Unofficial Intercourse. (Abbot.) — " It is desirable that 
the young teacher should meet his scholars first in an unofficial ca- 
pacity. For this purpose repair to the school-room on the first 
day at an early hour, so as to see and become acquainted with the 
scholars as they come in one by one. The intercourse between 
teacher and pupils should be like that between parents and chil- 
dren, where the utmost freedom is united with the most perfect 
respect. All the children will be pleased with the gentleness and 
affability of the teacher. Even a rough and ill-natured boy, who 
has perhaps come to the school with the express determination of 
attempting to make mischief, will be completely disarmed by be- 
ing asked politely to help the teacher to arrange the fire or alter 
the position of his desk. Thus, by means of the half hour during 
which the scholars are coming together, the teacher will find, when 
he calls upon the children to take their seats, that he has made a 
very large number of them his personal friends. Many of these 
will have communicated their first impressions to the others, so 
that he will find himself possessed, at the outset, of that which is 
of vital consequence in the opening of any administration — a 
strong party in his favor." 

VI. Special Directions to Teachers. (Bell.) 

1. Upon no other day of the school year does so much depend. 
The impressions made the first day, especially the first morning, 
will be lasting, and will have a powerful influence for good or for 
bad upon all future work. 

2. Know definitely the organization of the preceding school, 
especially the classification, and the page to which each class had 
advanced. This information can be obtained from the records of 



FIRST DAY OF SCHOOL. 117 

the former teacher, or from the pupils. In some way, get the in- 
formation. 

3. See to it that your school-house is in good condition before 
the school assembles. 

4. Prepare carefully your opening exercises, and make them 
brief. The opening " talk " should not exceed five minutes in 
length, and should be of such a character as to gain the confidence 
of the pupils and put them at their ease. 

5. Announce no rules of order, but say, "I expect each pupil 
to do just what he thinks is right. This afternoon we may see 
about regulations." 

6. Begin as you expect to continue. Allow no liberty the first 
day that you do not expect to grant next week and next month. 

7. After very brief preliminaries, in the quickest way possible, 
give each pupil something to DO. One of the quickest ways to do 
this is to assign work in arithmetic. , 

8. Hear classes rapidly, and assign suitable work. A skillful 
teacher will never allow any of his pupils to become idle. 

9. The secret of success in organizing a school lies in the abil- 
ity of a teacher to assign work promptly, and to keep the pupils 
busy. 

10. Follow as closely as possible the classification and pro- 
gramme of the former teacher, and make changes as experience 
dictates. 

11. Never waste time by taking the names of the pupils the 
first thing. Any other time is better. 

12. Study your work carefully, and have clearly in mind just 
what you are going to do, and how you are going to do it, before 
beginning. In this way you will gain and retain the respect and 
confidence of your pupils. 

Eemaeks. — School organization includes, in addition to the 
subjects here discussed, the regulations and the programme ; but I 
deem it best to discuss the former in connection with school gov- 
ernment, and the latter in connection with the course of study. 



118 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 



CHAPTER VI. 

PEACTICAL SUGGESTIONS BY PRACTICAL 
TEACHERS. 

I. Thorough Organization and Classification. (Orcutt.) — 
I have seen the school in operation, so perfectly systematized, all 
its arrangements so complete, and its departments so perfectly ad- 
justed, that the working of its machinery not only produced no 
friction, hut created order, interest, and zeal, such as secured the 
desired object. I have seen these arrangements so perfect as 
not only to prevent disorder, but to punish wrong, without the 
agency of the teacher. And, on the other hand, I have often 
witnessed the utter failure of apparently competent teachers, for 
the want of system in the" arrangement and classification of their 
schools. Organization is the first business of the school-room, 
and nothing else should be attempted until this is complete. 

II. School Organization is a System of Arrangement de- 
signed to secure Constant Employment, Efficient Instruc- 
tion, and Moral Control. — It aims at providing the means of 
instructing and educating the greatest number in the most efficient 
manner, and by the most economical expenditure of time and 
money. Organization puts each child in its proper place, and 
allots to each class its proper work — proper in kind and amount ; 
secures to each subject the time that is justly its due ; arranges 
the work, both as to place and kind, so as to preserve a quiet 
room ; and properly distributes the work, so that no interest of 
the school in any of its parts shall suffer. 

III. Preparation for Eirst Day's Wore. (De Graff.) — This 
is all-important. The seeds of failure are frequently sown the 
first hour. The teacher should have a plan in his mind— just 
what he will do, how he will do it, and when he will do it. He 
should not try to accomplish too much the first day ; must not be 
too anxious about courting the favor of pupils — good discipline 
can not be established in a day ; should use words expressive of 
friendly feelings and good intentions ; should not let frowns cloud 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 119 

the brow, even though all may not be at the outset just as one 
might wish ; should leave nothing to the impulse of the moment; 
should be firm, watchful, and uniform ; and should endeavor to 
make the Jlrst impression pleasant. 

IV. Too much Unnecessary and Cumbersome Machinery. 
(Kellogg.) — How many of the forms and modes of procedure 
adopted in the school-room will bear strict examination? "We 
say nothing here of the language of the teacher, the dictatorial 
tone, the biting censure, the menace, and the sneer. These there 
is no argument over ; there is no place for them in the school- 
rooms of a civilized and Christian community. "We limit our 
inquiry to those performances that have crept into the school- 
room, and have no relation whatever to education. They have 
been passed along from one generation to another, or adopted for 
a specific end by some teacher, and imitated and copied by every 
one else. Some insist on certain physical or mechanical artifices, 
without which they can not accomplish the ends of education. 
"We visited one of these schools. Here the bell and piano were in 
constant requisition to signal the pupils to everything but think- 
ing. The principal said he employed over two hundred signals, 
and that he was obliged to practice with the pupils to familiarize 
them with the code. 

V. "What I saw in a Country School. (Visitor.) 

The floor was clean, and the desks smooth ; pictures were on 
the walls ; maps and charts were ready for use. 

The signals were promptly obeyed, and the classes passed 
quietly to and fro ; no tiptoeing nor shuffling. 

The pupils did not communicate with each other openly or 
stealthily. 

The pupils did not ask the teacher a question without first 
raising the hand and obtaining permission. 

After the pupils criticised the solutions, readings, etc., they 
were required to make the corrections needed. 

Tlie exercises were of a varied kind, which prevented the pu- 
pils from becoming tired. 

Every pupil seemed to have plenty of work to do. 

The pupils did not laugh at each other's mistakes. 



120 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 

The teacher used good language, and taught the pupils to do 
the same. 

The pupils were always spoken to in a pleasant but firm man- 
ner ; it was the manner of a cultivated person holding authority. 

No interruptions occurred during recitations. The teacher 
gave all her energies to the lesson. 

VI. Valuable Hints. (A Teaohee.) — Have a clear, well-de- 
fined idea of the kind of school you want. Have in mind an im- 
aginary model school, but do not be discouraged if you fail many 
times before you attain this ; each day's determined work will 
bring it nearer. Teach pupils how to study. Teach them how 
to get from a book the thoughts which it contains. Much time 
is wasted in getting ready for work. Teach pupils to attend to 
business, to do the work assigned them at the proper time, and 
to do one thing at a time. In hearing recitations, be interested 
yourself ; be enthusiastic ; have a soul in the work. If you are 
obliged to punish, do it out of school. If anything unpleasant 
has occurred during the day between the teacher and any of the 
pupils, never allow the school to close without dropping some 
pleasant word, which will cause all to leave the room with good 
feeling. Cultivate in pupils, as far as possible, self-respect and 
self-government. In governing your school, do not lower your- 
self to the level of your pupils, but always be dignified in your 
deportment, thus silently lifting them up to a higher standard. 

VII. Concluding Eemarks on School Organiza- 
tion. — I have visited more than a thousand ungraded 
schools, and have not found one in twenty well organized. 
Many of the worst organized schools I have found in the 
hands of teachers claiming from five to forty years' expe- 
rience. Most of these proved to be the " self-sufficient, 
all-sufficient, insufficient" kind who can learn nothing 
from others. In view of the vast importance of thorough 
organization, and of the fact that few ungraded schools 
are properly organized, I have given "line upon line," 
hoping to stimulate teachers to earnest effort. 



PART III. 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 



CHAPTER I. — Elements of Governing Power. 
II. — School Regulations. 
III. — Enforcement of School Regulations. 
IV. — Principles pertaining to School Punishments. 
Y. — Judicious and Injudicious School Punishments. 
VI. — Corporal Punishment. 
VII. — Management of Special Cases. 
VIII. — Conditions of Order, and Duties and Rights 
of Teachers, Pupils, Parents, and Sohool- 
Boards. 



PART THIRD. 

SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 



" Goveenmekt is the power of control which produces 
and sustains order. Order is fitness of condition in things. " 
The end of school government is to facilitate growth ; but 
growth results from voluntary and well-directed effort. 
The child is to be developed into the self-reliant and self- 
determining man. Vicious habits are to be broken up, and 
right habits formed. These results are not reached by 
force, nor by mere authority, nor by iron rules, nor by 
cruel punishments. The child must be led to love and 
choose the good, and to hate and reject the bad. By ju- 
dicious training, principles, precepts, and examples must 
be converted into habits. As the best instructor is the 
one who renders his pupils independent of himself, so the 
best disciplinarian is the one who trains his pupils to gov- 
ern themselves. Hence the definition : School govern- 
ment is the poiver of control ivhich trains pupils to the 
habit of self-government. Order is the result of good gov- 
ernment. But, says Mayo : 

" There are two styles of order in the school-house — the military 
and the natural. It is possible to drill a class of children up to a 
more than clock-work precision of uniform behavior ; but, valuable 
as some of these lessons of military obedience, promptness, and 



124 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

precision are, I am confident we should aim at a style of disci- 
pline deeper and more vital. Your school will not be well or 
beautifully governed till the majority of your scholars are so 
enthusiastically engaged in the work in hand that they form a 
public opinion which compels respectful and orderly behavior as 
the law of the little community. Your high vocation is to teach 
these children how to live with each other in American society, 
each attending faithfully to his own business, and all working 
together to build up the world's republic — the model country of 
mankind." 

School government is here considered from the stand- 
point of the child. The teacher does not ask, " How may 
I keep order ? " but rather, " How may I so manage as to 
develop my pupils into noble, self-governing youth ? " 



CHAPTER I. 

ELEMENTS OF GOVEENIIG POWER. 

Governing power, in its educational sense, is ability 
to train to the habit of self-control. It is the capacity to 
marshal and render effective all educational resources. 
By careful analysis we discover the elements of governing 
power. The teacher spares no effort to master and em- 
body these. Thus armed, he assumes the fearful respon- 
sibility of child-culture. 

I. System is the First Element of Governing 
Powee. — System characterizes all good government, hu- 
man and divine. System is a condition of success in all 
fields of human achievement. The three factors in sys- 
tem are Time, Place, and Method. 

1. System means a Time for Everything. Order, reg- 



ELEMENTS OF GOVERNING POWER. 125 

ularity, and promptitude are the pillars of government. 
How admirably ordered is the well-regulated household ! 
The rising, the retiring, and the meals, occurring each at 
its appointed time, prevent confusion and produce com- 
fort. A network of railroads is a grand exhibition of the 
power of system. The time-table has revolutionized so- 
ciety, and the nations have learned to move to the rhythm 
of the rail. Napoleon once said to his officers, "Give 
your men plenty to eat and plenty to do, and you will 
find little difficulty in governing them." " Steady and 
congenial employment for the people " is the profoundest 
maxim of human government. " Keep the pupils inter- 
ested and busy " is the best rule ever given for the man- 
agement of schools. The school programme, by providing 
congenial employment for each pupil during each portion 
of the school day, lays the foundation for good government. 

2. System means a Place for Everything. " A place 
for everything, and everything in its place," is as impor- 
tant to the teacher as to the housekeeper or the mechanic. 
Having places for play, for wrappings, for books, for 
study, and for recitation, enables the teacher to secure 
good order with much greater readiness. 

Oedeely Habits. — Training pupils to orderly habits in the 
school-room prepares them for orderly habits through life. The 
teacher's desk, the pupil's desk, the school-room, and the school- 
grounds should be models of order and neatness. 

3. System means Method in doing Everything. Mili- 
tary precision should characterize all school movements. 
In calling and dismissing school, in class tactics, and in 
all school exercises, exactness is desirable. Children thus 
acquire the habit of prompt obedience, and learn to move 
to the rhythm of society. 



126 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

Eestxlts of System. — System is the key to success. Each 
one's experience will verify this statement. John and James started 
with equal chances. John worked according to a plan, and made 
systematic efforts to become a scholar and a man. James drifted, 
and was content to while away the precious years. When forty, 
John was a distinguished member of Congress, but James was 
merely a nice little man without money, without influence, with- 
out brains. Systematic effort made the one a man among men, 
and drifting made the other a ninny. System builds railroads, 
carries on the world's commerce, and enables rulers to manage 
empires. Education is in the highest sense the world's work, and 
in all its processes the perfection of system is demanded. The 
school should prepare the pupil for life. The habit of systematic 
work is worth vastly more than all the knowledge derived from 
books. In school government, thorough system, vigorously en- 
forced, is simply invincible. 

II. Energy is the Second Element of Govern- 
ing Power. — Labor is genius. Energy is the magic 
wand to which, all obstacles yield. System is the school 
completely planned and thoroughly organized ; energy is 
the power that inspires its movements. 

The Engine. — With the miracle of steam throbbing its ma- 
chinery within like a living soul, the engine becomes almost 
human in its wonderful power and adaptation to the wants of 
men. Now, the teacher personifies the steam-power in his mighty 
work. He is the one that inspires — that moves; and if this ele- 
ment be lacking, the school is a failure on his hands, and he is a 
pauper supported by the public funds. 

1. The Teacher should possess Boundless Energy. Energy 
keeps the grounds, the house, the furniture, and the apparatus in 
the best possible condition. Energy prepares all available means 
of illustration, infuses the utmost life and vigor into the recita- 
tion, and meets and overcomes difficulties. Energy studies the 
disposition and capacity of each pupil, and adapts the manage- 
ment and work to each. Energy evokes and directs every power 



ELEMENTS OF GOVERNING POWER. 127 

of every pupil. Indomitable energy compensates for many faults, 
and almost compels success. 

2. A Lazy Teacher is an Intolerable Nuisance. He keeps his 
seat through the livelong day. He prepares no lessons and gives 
no illustrations. In sleep-producing monotones he drawls through 
the weary hours. Under his administration dullness or disorder 
reigns, mischief and meanness flourish. He may keep school, hut 
he can never educate. 

III. Vigilance is the Third Element of Govern- 
ing Power. — "Eternal vigilance is the price of victory." 
However perfect the engine, and however great the en- 
ergy of steam, the constant vigilance of the engineer is 
indispensable. However systematic the organization, and 
however intense the energy of the teacher, no school can 
be successfully managed without untiring vigilance. 

1. The Teacher must Know his School, and hence 
must use his eyes and ears. To govern well, he must 
know the feelings and purposes of the pupils. He must 
be able to see and hear m detail, to know just what hap- 
pens. He will thus be able at once and effectually to 
correct disorder. 

2. Vigilance Prevents as well as Corrects Faults. He 
governs best who anticipates and prevents offenses. Care- 
less government fosters crime and renders its punishment 
barbarous. The eye of the wide-awake teacher incites to 
diligence, and dissuades from wrong. 

3. The worthy Teacher watches to Encourage and 
Train. The eye of the loving Father never slumbers. 
The tender parent watches over all the goings of a dar- 
ling child. Marshal Key, when about to make one of his 
invincible charges^ weuld say, " Soldiers, the eye of your 
beloved commander is upon you. Napoleon expects each 
one to do his duty." So the kindly eye of the faithful 



< 



128 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

teacher is ever upon his school, not to detect and punish, 
but to cheer, to assist, to prevent. 

Fault-Finding. — "Seldom reprove" is a safe rule. The vigi- 
lant teacher does not seem to notice a thousand trivial faults ; hut 
if attention has once heen called to a fault, the teacher should 
never allow the same thing to occur a second time without a re- 
proof; nor should a violation of principle ever be allowed to pass. 
But the attempt to correct every little fault must result in igno- 
minious failure. Few things so utterly demoralize a school as the 
shrill, croaking voice of the continual fault-finder. Such nuisances 
should he abated at any cost, whether found in the state, the 
church, or the school. 

IV. WlLL-PoWER IS THE FOUETH ELEMENT OF GOV- 
ERNING Power. — Will-power is the mightiest of all 
forces. 

Law is but the expression of will. In all ages it has been the 
iron will that has mastered the world. To succeed well in any- 
thing, there must be iron in the soul — resolution, force, manhood. 
Will may be termed decision of character — persistency of purpose. 
The law of the school — its rule of action — should be stamped on 
the personality of all connected with it. Law pervades the uni- 
verse. The child should be made to know law — to love law — to 
sustain law. 

1. School Management must be Uniform and Certain. 
System must he strictly enforced. A vacillating, tempo- 
rizing policy is as fatal to good scholarship as it is to good 
government. A good easy teacher is generally good for 
nothing. The determined teacher will hold the reins 
firmly, and will train to orderly habits and efficient work. 

2. The Teacher needs a Powerful Will. This trait 
characterizes the great men and women of all ages. To 
resist importunities, to counteract fickleness, and to train 
to form and follow plans, requires the utmost firmness. 



ELEMENTS OF GOVERNING POWER. 129 

To develop decision of character, to infuse iron into child- 
nature, and to fit youth for achievement, is possible only 
to the teacher with great will-power. 

3. The Firm Hand is best for the Pupil. The teacher 
kindly but firmly holds the pupil to systematic work. 
The soldier obeys without question. The pugilist submits 
absolutely to his trainer. How much more should the 
pupil yield implicitly to the requirements of a loving 
teacher ! 

Caution. — Obstinacy is not firmness. The unreasoning mule 
is obstinate; the loving parent is firm. Benevolent firmness is 
noble ; blind obstinacy is brutal. Obstinacy hastens certain fail- 
ure ; firmness promotes success. 

V. Self-Control is the Fifth Element of Gov- 
erning Power. — The great general remains calm in the 
midst of the battle. The statesman is not excited by the 
tumult of partyism. Still more does the teacher of youth 
need to be calm amid all storms. He molds as well as 
governs. 

Before we can manage and control others, we must first be 
able to manage and control ourselves. "We can not teach others 
the way unless we ourselves know the path and the difficulties by 
actual experience. A writer has well said, " We can learn of those 
who have proved by their lives that they are worthy to teach. 
Only those who are made of stancher material than ordinary mor- 
tals should presume to advise or dare to control. To teach, to 
guide, is a holy task, demanding an exemplary life." 

1. Self -Possession greatly aids Self -Control. The 
teacher needs to keep all his powers well in hand, ready 
for every work and prepared for every emergency. 

2. Anger must be Crushed. Exhibitions of temper do 
incalculable injury. The violent teacher loses the respect 



130 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

of his pupils, loses all moral power over them. If he suc- 
ceeds at all, his must be a government of force. The im- 
portance of avoiding all exhibitions of anger can hardly 
be too earnestly urged. 

3. Impatience must be Repressed. A hundred things 
occur hourly to render the teacher irritable and impatient. 
To yield is ruin. The teacher needs a world of patience. 
Child-nature is full of perversity, and child-mind develops 
slowly. "Wesley's mother would tell him the same thing 
twenty times; and many "children of the present day re- 
quire equal patience. 

4. Antagonisms must be Suppressed. To suffer an- 
tagonism to spring up between yourself and a pupil or 
a patron is a fatal mistake. Control yourself, and thus 
control others. Never antagonize. 

5. Cheerfulness helps Self- Control. Cheerfulness is an 
electric power. There is no one thing that will do more 
to make a well-qualified teacher successful than cheerful- 
ness. As the cheerful mother will do much to make sun- 
shine and happiness in the home circle, so the teacher 
who can be habitually cheerful will be very sure to have a 
pleasant, happy, and successful school. 

The subject of self-control demands the earnest study and con- 
stant care of the teacher. Without a good degree of this power 
no one need expect success. 

VI. Confidence is the Sixth Element of Gov- 
erning Poweb. — This is a noble trait, and its influence 
is unbounded. 

1. Confidence in the Loving Father. He orders all 
things well. An abiding trust in the Supreme Euler gives 
the teacher a dignity and a power that nothing else can 
give. In the dark hours of trial confidence in God.sus- 



ELEMENTS OF GOVERNING POWER. 131 

tains and nerves for victory. The Father takes note of 
the earnest work of the humble teacher. 

2. Confidence in the Pupils. He who would so govern 
as to elevate, must trust. Children and men generally 
do about as they are expected to do. Trust your pupils, 
and they will seldom betray the trust. Suspicion is only 
worthy of fiends, and it breeds offenses, treachery, and 
crime. 

3. Self- Confidence. This does not mean an over- 
weening egotism. Inordinate self-esteem is a barrier to 
success. "He thinks he knows it all," "He is stuck 
up," etc., etc., are expressions frequently applied to 
teachers, and unfortunately with too much foundation. 
]STo class of workers is more exposed to the malady in 
question. The teacher needs to guard against egotism in 
every possible way. Remember that modesty is the vir- 
tue that society most esteems. 

Self-confidence means a well-grounded assurance that you can 
do what you undertake. It must be based — (1), on good scholar- 
ship ; (2), on a profound study of cbild-nature ; (3), on a practical 
knowledge of school management. "Without confidence, failure is 
almost certain ; with it, the teacher is commander of the situation. 

Let there oe a general confidence everywhere. Confidence by 
the teacher. Confidence between teacher and pupil. Confidence 
between parent and teacher. Confidence on the part of the 
community. 

VII. Power to Punish judiciously is the Seventh 
Element of Governing Power. — Punishment, as an 
educational means, is essentially corrective. Its object is 
to lead the pupil to see and feel his fault, and correct his 
wrong-doing. 

1. In the proportion that the teacher possesses the other 
elements of governing power, the necessity for punish- 



132 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

ment becomes less and less ; but no teacher need expect 
to be able to succeed without at times inflicting punish- 
ment. 

2. TJie Art of Punishment is a rare accomplishment. 
It means the ability so to punish as to increase the pupil's 
respect and lore for you, and at the same time to awaken 
in him a resolve to forsake the wrong and do the right. 

VIII. CULTUKE IS THE EIGHTH ELEMENT OF GOVERN- 
ING Power. — Culture of mind, culture of manners, and 
culture of yoice vastly augment one's power to govern. 

1. Culture of Mind. Thorough scholarship commands 
respect. We honor men and women with well-developed 
arioTwell-stored minds. The ignoramus is despised, and 
soon comes to grief. 

2. Culture of Manners. The teacher is a model. 
Pupils tend to become like their teachers. Hence, our 
teachers should be refined ladies and gentlemen. The 
coarse, ill-mannered, dowdyish teacher not only fails to 
govern, but also becomes a positive influence for evil. 

3. Culture of Voice. The human voice is the great 
instrument both for instruction and government ; yet the 
elocution of the school-room is often most abominable. 
No wonder we have so few good readers and speakers ! 
The following directions may be safely- followed : 

V 1. Don't talk much. Eternal talkers are a fearful nuisance, 
and, as teachers, are usually great failures. 2. Use the right 
word and right tone. Loud, harsh, monotonous talking incites 
to disorder. Kemember that " words fitly spoken are like apples 
of gold in pictures of silver." 3. Never scold. Nothing else so 
tends to sour you and render you hateful to your pupils. 

4. Practice what you Teach. Good manners and a 
pleasing elocution are very important parts of an edu- 



ELEMENTS OF GOVERNING POWER. 133 

cation, and their possession wonderfully increases the 
teacher's power to govern. 

The best governed schools are often found in charge of girls 
under twenty years of age. Gentle manners, with a low, earnest 
voice, largely explain the mystery. Rough, double-fisted men are 
no longer selected to master the bad boys. 

IX. Heart-Power is the Ninth Element of Gov- 
erning Power. — This means the ability to win the re- 
spect, the confidence, and the love of pupils and patrons. 
It means power to govern through the highest and most 
ennobling motives. 

1. The Teacher must he Worthy. True worth wins 
its way ; pretense comes to grief. 

2. The Teacher must do all in his Power for his 
Pupils. His days and his nights must be consecrated 
to their interests. To the daily feast he must bring his 
richest treasures. 

Make your Pupils Happy. — Add all the innocent pleasures 
you can to your school-room ; ir^Sssible, adorn the walls with 
pictures. Add vases of beautiful flowers as often as possible. 
Don't forget the chaste, holy power there is in music. Be cheerful 
and pleasant in every relation you sustain to your sacred trust. 

3. The Teacher must Love his Pupils. "We love 
God because He first loved us." The loving teacher, ever 
affable, kind, and considerate, is certain to win respect, 
confidence, and love. Love wins love. Kindness, com- 
bined with judicious executive ability, will govern a school 
better than all arbitrary law possible. 

4. Despotism is a Mistake. The cold, repulsive tyrant 
may have forced quiet, and may compel good lessons ; but 
he creates an atmosphere in which all hateful passions 
and habits are fostered. 



134 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

5. Obedience should be Cheerful and Glad. In the 
sunshine of confidence and love, all that is lovely in child- 
nature buds and blossoms and bears fruit. Order is the 
harmony of glad music. Lessons are a feast and an end- 
less delight. The .teacher is a kind, loving friend, leading 
pupils up to all that is beautiful and desirable. 

Personal Influence is a Wonderful Powee. — The great 
rulers and commanders of the world were almost worshiped. The 
great teachers, Socrates, Aristotle, Pestalozzi, Thomas Arnold, and 
Horace Mann, were loved and venerated. Personal influence is 
demanded to enforce systems, carry measures, meet emergencies, 
and overcome difficulties. Heart-power renders school govern- 
ment easy. 

Caution. — Do not depend upon heart-power alone to govern 
your school. Use all the elements of governing power. 

X. Teaching Power is the Tenth Element of 
Governing Power. 

1. Teaching Power is the Ability to enlist and direct 
the whole Energies of the Learner. Good scholarship is 
essential ; but of good scholars scarcely five in a hundred 
can teach : the ninety-five go through the motions, but 
do not teach. Teaching is arousing, interesting, direct- 
ing, causing to know. Teaching power is the ability to 
secure such effort as will result in culture and in scholar- 
ship. Genuine teaching results in a powerful and noble 
manhood ; machine teaching produces learned dunces and 
ninnies. 

" In good teaching every faculty of the mind is brought into 
thorough, systematic, and judicious daily use. By making each 
study bright and attractive through the fancy, by allowing a few 
minutes daily for active motion in a room properly ventilated, we 
save not only time, but the wear and tear of our own bodies and 
minds. A child can learn infinitely faster when interested than 



ELEMENTS OF GOVERNING POWER. 135 

when indifferent. If scope be given for each faculty, and recrea- 
tion he conscientiously provided for the hody, he will come to it 
as to something he enjoys, and will find little time for giggling, 
pinching, pulling, and the numberless other things that are so an- 
noying to the teacher. Many a teacher is far more anxious to 
govern well than to teach, forgetting that the great secret of good 
discipline is good teaching. Often the pupil who is most trouble- 
some when uninterested becomes a most earnest student when 
rightly directed and inspired by the true teacher. The teacher 
should lead rather than drive, teach rather than hear recitations, 
encourage originality of thought and method rather than require 
the exact language and methods of the books. He should be the 
earnest friend, not the unyielding monarch." 

2. Persons with good Teaching Power generally Gov- 
ern well. They exert a power which magnetizes the 
pupils. To teach well means power to secure attention 
and study. The pupils catch the enthusiasm of the 
teacher. Cheerful, earnest work makes it easy to main- 
tain order. V 

Caution. — Enthusiastic teachers sometimes become absorbed 
in teaching, and neglect the other conditions of success. I again 
remind you that it is necessary to utilize all the elements of gov- 
erning power. 

XI. Managing Power is the Eleventh Element 
of Governing Power. — Tact, gumption, common sense, 
skill, wisdom, are some of the terms by which this ele- 
ment of power is designated. It has a world of meaning. 

1. The Teacher should oe a Man among Men. He not 
only manages the children, but also directs the educational 
work of the district. He is the natural leader in all 
movements that tend to improve and elevate. 

2. .Cooperation must he ^ecured^ One can not do 
much.- It is cooperation that builds railroads, manages 



136 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

school systems, and establishes states. To make a school 
successful demands the hearty cooperation of the entire 
district. To secure this requires tact, management. 
While guiding, the teacher must often seem to follow. 

3. Every tiling must be Turned to Advantage. Defeat 
must be changed to victory. The angry patron who 
comes to give trouble must be sent away a warm friend of 
the teacher. Misconduct must be made the occasion for 
deepening the love of right. Evils must be attacked and 
conquered in detail. 

4. Even Opposing Forces must be made Helpful. Con- 
trary winds are made to waft the vessel across the sea ; 
and so in education, opposing forces must be made to 
antagonize each other, or promote the welfare of the 
school. Skillful management makes the difference be- 
tween success and failure. The results of good manage- 
ment are manifold. 

~J Bemeaks. — Armed with these potent elements of governing 
power, let the teacher be content only with the highest results. 
Discipline the pupil to self-control. Train him to the habit of 
right acting. " Develop in him mental power. Lead him up to a 
noble manhood. Inspire him for achievement. 

Teaching is incomparably the greatest work on this earth. 
Minds only are immortal. The noblest creations of art fade and 
crumble. Cities and nations and worlds grow old and pass 
away. The teacher's work alone endures. Minds grandly de- 
veloped ; hearts attuned to the true, the beautiful, and the good ; 
lives devoted to every ennobling work ; spirits occupying a lofty 
position among the eternal tenantry of God's boundless universe 
— these are to be the everlasting monuments of the teacher's la- 
bors. 



ELEMENTS OF GOVERNING POWER. 137 

Topical Review. — Elements of Governing Power. 

Introduction. 

1. Government and order defined. 

2. School government and governing power defined. 
System. 

1. System means a time for everything. 

2. System means a place for everything. 

8. System means method in doing everything. 
Energy, 

1. The teacher needs boundless energy. 2. The lazy teacher. 
Vigilance. 

1. The teacher must know in order to govern. 

2. Vigilance prevents as well as corrects. 

Will-power. _—-«== — \ 

1. The teacher needs a powerful will. 2. Firm hand. 
Self-control. 

1. Self -control prepares for school control. 

2. Cheerfulness insures self-control. 

Confidence. 

1. Confidence in the loving Father. 

2. Confidence in the pupils. 3. Self-confidence. 
Power to punish judiciously. 

1. Punishment a necessary educational means. 

2. Kindness with firmness. 
Culture. 

1. Thorough scholarship and large information. 

2. Culture of manners and morals. 3. Culture of voice. 
Heart-power. 

1. The teacher must be worthy. 2. He must live for his pupils. 

3. Love wins love. 4.. Kindness better than law. 
Teaching power. 

1. Teaching is arousing, directing, causing to know. 

2. Good teaching is the secret of good discipline. 
Managing power. 

1. The best ability is needed for the educational work. 

2. Cooperation must be secured. 3. Opposition. 



138 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

CHAPTEE II. 

SCHOOL REGULATIONS. 

System is the first condition of good government, as 
well as the first element of governing power. Wise regu- 
lations establish and foster system. The old schoolmas- 
ter, with all his rules and all his rods, belongs to the 
past. Though often a blundering despot, he did what he 
could. Peace to his ashes. The goodish modern teacher, 
with no rules and no rods, is the opposite extreme. The 
efficient teacher will equally avoid these dangerous ex- 
tremes. The coming teacher, with necessary regulations, 
wisely enforced, is the true mean. 

I. Principles relating to School Eegulations. 
— Great principles underlie all educational processes. 
Principles, and not whim or caprice, determine plans and 
test methods. 

1. Few. — School Regulations should he Few, hut Ex- 
haustive. Simplicity is of primary importance in school 
management. Many rules occasion much friction, and 
cause a vast amount of waste labor in education. 

2. General. — School Regulations should he General 
rather than Special. They should be such as apply to 
all pupils and all schools. Special regulations with spe- 
cific penalties should be exceptional. 

3. Popular. — School Regulations should merit the 
Approval of All. They should be so evidently just and • 
proper as to command the approval and support of all 
teachers, patrons, and pupils. The influence of public 
sentiment is immense. 

4. Practicable. — School Regulations should he such 



SCHOOL REGULATIONS. 139 

as the Teacher can and will Enforce. Eules or laws not 
enforced tend to bring all rules and laws into contempt. 

5. Education" al. — All Regulations should tend to form 
Right Habits. The school trains the pupil for citizenship 
and achievement. The object of school life is to prepare 
for real life. Wise regulations educate morally. 

6. Positive. — School Regulations should be Positive, 
not Negative. Prohibitions should be sequences of posi- 
tive regulations. 

" The popular notion of government in school," says Mayo, " is 
summed up in, ' You must not do this or that ' ; being altogether 
specific, repressive, and generally a mere matter of negations. 
Teachers, falling into this view by a sort of inheritance of notions, 
look upon school government as being the mere keeping of order, 
a prevention of misdemeanors; and this is supposed to be the 
work of the teacher, and all his efforts are solely directed to keep- 
ing order. Hence, the perpetual watchfulness of the teacher, the 
constant promulgation of rules, and the ever-recurring adminis- 
tration of reproof and discipline. 

" Now, the true objective point of the work of the educator, if 
rightly seen, would correct all this. The direction, the restraint, 
the reproof, the punishment, are not for themselves, nor, indeed, 
for the mere end of immediate order ; they are, beyond and above 
all that, means to the moral training of the pupil. The true ob- 
jective point is the developing and disciplining of the pupil's reason, 
conscience, and will; it is training him to a sharp apprehension of 
right, a quick, strong sense of duty, and upright and immovable 
purposes. It is the making of him a high-minded and thoroughly 
self-controlled person, one who is truly ' a law unto himself.' " 

• II. General Begulations. — The following regula- 
tions are the outgrowth of educational thought and ex- 
perience. They accord with the above principles, and, 
though few, cover all the ground. They are now in 
general use, and tend to become universal. 



140 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

1. Kegularity. — Teachers and Pupils must he Regu- 
lar in their Attendance. When at all possible, each one 
must be present each day and each half day. 

2 . Promptitude. — Teachers and Pupils must be 
Prompt in the Discharge of every Duty. Kegularity and 
promptitude are the pillars of good school discipline. 

3. Decorum. — Teachers and Pupils must observe 
Strict Decorum. Decorum means proper conduct, good 
manners, and becoming behavior. It means to do the 
proper thing at the right time, and in the right way. 

4. Quiet. — Teachers and Pupils must study to be 
Quiet. In every working school there will be the hum of 
business, but teachers and pupils study to avoid unneces- 
sary noise, and to produce a pleasant stillness. While the 
boisterous school is both unpleasant and injurious, the 
death-like stillness of inactivity is equally to be avoided. 

5. Communication. — All Communications duriiig 
School Hours must be made through the Teacher. The 
observance of this rule prevents a large proportion of the 
disorder often noticed in schools. Pupils must not com- 
municate by talking, by writing, or by voluntary signs. 

6. Morality. — Teachers and Pupils must sustain 
good Moral Characters. School government should be 
positive. It is not enough that pupils avoid all immoral- 
ity. The positive virtues must be developed into habits. 
Truthfulness, honesty, benevolence, and fidelity must be 
systematically cultivated. 

III. Special Eegulations. — The above general regu- 
lations are exhaustive. I have never met a case that did 
not legitimately fall under these rules. But the peculiar 
circumstances, the special application, the necessary de- 
tails, and the proper enforcement of the general regula- 
tions may on occasion require special regulations. The 



SCHOOL REGULATIONS. 141 

general regulations should be adopted at the close of the 
first day ; special regulations should be adopted from 
time to time as they become necessary. 

1. Special Regulations are intended to specify and en- 
force General Regulations. It will save much trouble to 
have it understood that they are not new rules, but simply 
corollaries or special applications of the general regulations. 

2. Special Regulations sliould he adopted only when 
Necessary, and the necessity should be apparent to the 
school. There is always danger of an accumulation of 
such regulations. 

3. Special Regulations sliould be like Angels' Visits. 
Many a school is weighted down and almost ruined by 
thirty, forty, fifty, or more special regulations. 

IV. Adoption of Kegulations. — In this country the 
school is a republic, in which the young are trained to the 
habit of making, obeying, and sustaining their own laws. 
School life prepares for real life. Pupils are treated as in- 
telligent, self-determining, and law-abiding persons. 

1. Presentation. — The Teacher proposes and explains 
the Regulations. While he acts with the pupils, he leads 
them to adopt suitable regulations. 

2. Adoption". — The Teacher and Pupils adopt the 
Regulations. Laws imposed without the consent of the 
governed are repulsive. The obligation to obey a self- 
imposed rule is doubly strong. The very best results are 
secured by this method. 

3. Pledge. — The Teacher and Pupils pledge themselves 
to make an Earnest Effort to obey and sustain the Regula- 
tions. This pledge is eminently proper, and is a powerful 
means of promoting good conduct. Efforts to do right 
are stimulated and directed until they become fixed habits. 

4. Approval. — The School-Board approves the Regit- 



142 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

lations. It may be well in all cases to submit the regula- 
tions to the school-board for official endorsement. The 
President signs bills passed by both houses of Congress ; 
so the school-board should give authority to the regula- 
tions adopted by the school. Thus regulations become laws. 

5. Enforcement. — The Teacher enforces the Regu- 
lations. The fitness of this arrangement is apparent to 
every pupil. In the discharge of this duty, each pupil 
stands pledged to assist the teacher. All work together 
to secure the same end. 

6. Method of Adopting. — The attention of the school 
is called to the necessity for some regulations. As the 
state must have laws, so the school must have regulations. 

Teacher. How many think that the teacher and pu- 
pils should be prompt ? 

Pupils all raise their hands. 

Teacher. How many are in favor of making prompti- 
tude one of our regulations ? 

Pupils all raise their hands. 

Teacher. All that will join with me in a pledge to 
make an earnest effort to be prompt while connected with 
the school, please rise. 

Pupils all rise. 

In a few minutes, at the close of the first day, the six 
regulations may be unanimously adopted. In rare cases 
a pupil may refuse to rise. After dismissing the school, 
talk the matter over with him, and secure his pledge. As 
new pupils enter, they may be pledged privately or before 
the school. 

The pupils will regard the regulations as their own laws, and 
hence will feel under peculiar obligations to obey and sustain them. 
The true idea of school government is thus realized. The govern- 
ing force is from within, and not from without. 



SCHOOL REGULATIONS. 143 

Topical Eeview. — School Eegulatioks. 

Extremes and mean. 

1. The old schoolmaster, with his rules and rods. 

2. The goodish teacher, with no rules and no rods. 

3. The coming teacher, with necessary regulations wisely en- 

forced. 

Principles pertaining to school regulations. 

1. Few. — School regulations should be few, but exhaustive. 

2. General. — School regulations should be general, not special. 

3. Popular. — School regulations should merit general approval. 

4. Practicable. — School regulations should be enforceable. 

5. Educational. — School regulations should tend to form right 

habits. 

6. Positive. — School regulations should be positive, not negative. 

General regulations. 

1. Regularity. — Teachers and pupils must be regular. 

2. Promptitude. — Teachers and pupils must be prompt. 

3. Decorum. — Teachers and pupils must be decorous. 
If. Quiet. — Teachers and pupils must study to be quiet. 

5. Communication. — All communications must be made through 

the teacher. 

6. Morality. — Teachers and pupils must sustain good characters. 

Special regulations. 

1. Object. — To enforce general regulations. 

2. Adopted. — Only when absolutely necessary. 

3. Few. — Like angels' visits. 

Adoption of regulations. 

1. Presentation. — The teacher proposes and explains regulations. 

2. Adoption. — Teacher and pupils adopt regulations. 

3. Pledge. — Teacher and pupils pledge themselves to sustain regu- 

lations. 
4- Approval. — The school-board approves the regulations. 

5. Enforcement. — The teacher enforces tlie regulations. 

6. Method of adopting. — Plan illustrated. 

7. Pupils will consider the regulations as their own laws. 



144 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

CHAPTER III. 

ENFORCEMENT OP SCHOOL REGULATIONS. 

School Management is a great art. Principles guide 
the teacher at every step. But, as in all arts, great wis- 
dom is needed in the application and adaptation of the 
principles. Hotv shall I enforce the regulations ? How 
am I to induce the pupils to cheerfully observe the rules ? 
Few questions are more important, or more difficult to 
answer. Each one must take into consideration all the 
conditions, and then do the best he can. The hints here 
given are the fruits of experience. 

I. Regularity. — Irregularity, in country schools es- 
pecially, is a serious evil, and no effort should be spared 
to reduce it to the minimum. To secure regularity — 

1. Intensely Interest the Pupils. Make the school in 
the highest degree attractive. Have each one feel that 
each day is of great value. Point out how closely regu- 
larity is connected with success. Infuse a deep interest 
into every lesson. Teach well. Deeply interested pupils 
will generally manage to be regular. 

Superintendent Parker, of Quincy, Mass., in his annual report, 
says that his method of teaching and good treatment have nearly, 
if not quite, settled the question of attendance there. " As a rule, 
children attend school when they possibly can. There is notice- 
able a growing love for school and all that pertains to it. Means 
of stimulating attendance, behavior, and study, outside of real 
teaching, are becoming less and less necessary.' Tardiness has 
been greatly reduced during the past year, and the truancies are 
confined to a few trivial cases." 

2. Interest the Parents. Show how it is that an 
irregular pupil falls behind his classes and becomes dis- 



ENFORCEMENT OF SCHOOL REGULATIONS. 145 

couraged. The intelligent parent will not willingly de- 
tain a child from a single recitation. Teachers must do 
much missionary work of this kind. 

3. Urge Regularity as a Duty. The pupil should 
make the most of himself. He should so act as not to 
injure himself or others. Irregularity injures the pupil 
and also the school. 

4. Inflict necessary Punishments. To say the least, 
irregularity is a misfortune for which the pupil must suf- 
fer the consequences. If the habit becomes chronic, it 
may work a forfeiture of seat, of position in class, or even 
of position in school, as events decide. 

II. Promptitude. — Schools wisely vie with each other 
in the effort to secure the utmost promptitude. To en- 
force promptitude — 

1. Let the Teacher he Prompt. Usually, the teacher 
should be at the school-room at least a half hour before 
the time of opening. The teacher's example greatly in- 
fluences the pupils. 

2. Train to the Habit of Promptitude. A determined 
teacher will soon revolutionize an entire school and the 
community. Promptitude is easy when it grows into a 
habit. 

3. Impress the Importance of Promptitude. Point 
out the advantages of promptitude and the evils of tardi- 
ness. Show the effects of tardiness by examples. 

"Washington once said to a tardy officer, " Sir, you may waste 
your own time, but you have no right to waste ours." A healthy 
sentiment is thus created. Tardiness comes to be considered a 
misfortune and a disgrace. 

4. Inflict appropriate Punishments. The tardy list 
works well in some schools. As the tardy pupils enter, 
they write on the board or slate their names and the min- 

7 



146 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

utes tardy. At recess, when the others pass out, these 
take the tardy seat. If the explanation shows a case of 
necessary detention, the pupil is excused ; otherwise he 
remains seated. After the recess, the pupil is permitted 
to take a short recess by himself. 

In dealing with tardiness the teacher needs to exercise much 
discretion. Some theorists would have you discard all punish- 
ment, and depend upon the interest created to secure prompti- 
tude. You will find in practice that gentle coercion is some- 
times necessary. 

5. Arrange for Exceptional Cases. Promptitude must 
be secured at any cost ; but simple justice requires pro- 
visions for exceptional cases. Pupils peculiarly situated 
should not be considered tardy up to a fixed time. Abso- 
lute necessity must characterize all such cases. "With a 
few wise provisions of this nature, real tardiness may 
become almost unknown. 

Adapt the Treatment to the Community. The course pur- 
sued in country schools may not he best in city schools. Even in 
different localities in the country different means must be used. 
Public sentiment will not sustain extreme measures. Prompti- 
tude must be secured by skillful management. Any community, 
however, may be educated to sustain teachers in enforcing strict 
promptitude. 

III. Decorum. — This should characterize every vol- 
untary act. Positions, movements, dress, manners, and 
conduct, in school and out, are some of the points to be 
considered. 

1. The Teacher should he a Model. Pupils tend to 
become like the teacher ; hence good manners is an essen- 
tial qualification of the teacher. An uncouth, ill-man- 
nered, slovenly teacher should never be permitted to dis- 
grace the school-room. 



ENFORCEMENT OF SCHOOL REGULATIONS. 147 

2. Decorum is one of the Conditions of Success. The 
well-behaved are everywhere preferred to the ill-behaved. 
" He is a gentleman," is the best of all passports. When 
pupils are made to realize that the teacher is a lady, it is 
not difficult to persuade them to try to be decorous . 

3. Teach Decorum Systematically. A short, practical 
lesson bi-weekly will prove of great value. The subject 
will thus be kept before the teacher and the pupils. These 
lessons should be full of interest and point. 

4. Teach Decorum Incidentally. Children must have 
concrete cases. As these occur, briefly call attention to 
them, and commend the decorous. 

5. Train to Habits of Decorum. Precept is good; 
example is better ; training is best. Training converts 
precepts and examples into habits. Manage to have the 
pupils act decorously until decorum becomes a habit. 
Train them to conduct themselves properly everywhere 
and at all times. 

6. Right Punishments may he Used. Some pupils 
can not be reached in any other way. Whatever will 
work in the pupil an appreciation of good manners and 
proper conduct is legitimate. The earnest and continu- 
ous effort to be decorous will soon grow into a life habit. 

IV. Quiet. — "Study to be quiet" is imperative. All 
pledge themselves to sustain this regulation. ■ It should 
be boldly written over every teacher's desk. To enforce 
quiet — * 

1. Be Quiet Yourself. A fussy, noisy, boisterous 
teacher demoralizes the school. Talk in a low tone, 
move quietly, and avoid all clapping, pounding, and 
stamping. Energy and vigor should be manifested in 
better ways. It is the lightning that kills. 

2. Secure Quiet from Principle rather than from Fear. 



148 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

One pupil has no right to disturb others. The effort to 
be quiet tends to the general good, and hence is a duty. 

3. Boisterousness in the School-Room must never be 
Permitted. During rests, talking and laughing are proper 
and should be encouraged ; but all romping, scuffling, 
and boisterousness must be tabooed. 

4. Train Pupils to do Everything quietly. If a pupil 
does anything noisily, have him repeat the act quietly. 
Soon your pupils will become toned down, and will speak 
and move quietly. Your school will become a quiet, 
cheerful home. 

5. Use necessary Punishments. Some vicious and 
careless pupils can not otherwise be cured of noisy habits. 

Don't mistake. Don't tell the children to sit still. The school- 
room is a workshop, and is dedicated, not to silence, but to arous- 
ing and directing mental forces. Activity necessitates noise. But 
the noise of moving classes, of work on board and slate, of live, 
earnest recitation, is music. Only unnecessary noise is discord. 

V. Communication". — Necessity has forced all good 
schools to require all communications to be made through 
the teacher, or at specified times. Order can not other- 
wise be maintained. Though exceedingly difficult, this 
regulation can and must be enforced. 

1. Appeal to Principle. All admit the injurious 
effects of communication, and each agrees to make an 
earnest effort to avoid it. Conscience is the inner force 
impelling to the right. If wisely directed, it does more 
than all other means combined to enforce regulations and 
sustain order. 

2. Never grant Permission to Speak. Say to pupils 
firmly, " No." Necessary communications can be made 
through the teacher, or at times set apart for that pur- 
pose. 



ENFORCEMENT OF SCHOOL REGULATIONS. 149 

3. Anticipate and Prevent. By word, or sign, or look 
you may prevent the offense, and prevention is infinitely 
better than correction. Herein lies one of the secrets of 
the success of the best school managers. 

4. Throw around Pupils the most favorable Influences. 
It is wise to remove the weak from temptation. Place 
them with the strong and brave. In chronic cases, the 
pupil may for a time be seated apart from the other 
pupils. 

5. Train your Pupils to the Habit of Non-communi- 
cation. This has been done in thousands of schools, and 
what others have done you may do. "When the habit 
of non-communication is once fully established, very little 
of the teacher's time is required for the preservation of 
order. The social intercourse of pupils is the prolific 
source of all those disturbing influences which require so 
much of the teacher's time to counteract." 

6. Inflict appropriate Punishments. The habit must 
be broken up. When other means fail, effective punish- 
ment must be used. It is impossible to indicate what the 
punishment should be. In each case the teacher must do 
whatever promises the best results. General or private 
reproof, or changing seats, will usually prove effective. 

7. Cultivate a determined Purpose. "You must not 
communicate " should be felt in every nerve and fiber of 
the school. No quarter must be shown to whispering. 
Where there is a will, there is a way. "Finally, the 
teacher must be persistent, and, like nature, while teach- 
ing the child obedience to her laws, must allow no trans- 
gression to be committed without the pupil's suffering 
the legitimate penalty." 

VI. Morality. — Moral culture is by far the most im- 
portant part of an education. It is not more difficult to 



150 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

produce good men and women than to produce good 
scholars. Systematic and persistent effort on the part 
of the family, the school, and the community will as cer- 
tainly produce good character as good scholarship. 

1. All the Impulses of the Teacher must be Pure and 
Elevating. The earnest desire, the pure example, and 
the timely word will flow from the pure heart. It is im- 
possible to over-estimate the influence for good of the 
truly worthy teacher. Character tells. 

2. Teach Morality Systematically. A lesson bi-weekly 
will do great good. Make these lessons remarkably inter- 
esting and practical. 

3. Incidentally Teach Moral Lessons. This can be 
done in connection with reading-lessons, cases of disci- 
pline, or when incidents occur involving morality. If 
timely and persistent, this method will accomplish far 
more than lectures or set lessons. Abstractions and moral 
sermons repel the young. Morals, like science, must be 
taught concretely. 

4. Worh in the Pupil a Love of the Right and a 
Hatred of the Wrong. In reading or telling anecdotes, 
avoid the details of crime, but show the nobleness of 
right-doing and the meanness of wrong-doing ; show the 
tendencies and the outcome of the two courses of con- 
duct. This field is unlimited, and full of inspiration. 

5. Attach one Vice at a Time. The skillful general 
manages to conquer the enemy in detail. So must vices 
be conquered. Take profanity, then untruthfulness, then 
dishonesty, etc., and mass all your forces on each in turn. 
When the first is conquered, attack the second. This is 
the only successful plan for a campaign against vice, 
either for the individual, the school, or the community. 

6. Train the Pupil to the Habit of Right-doing. No 



ENFORCEMENT OF SCHOOL REGULATIONS. 151 

amount of moral teaching will answer. Doing good is the 
only way to become good. 

By managing to have pupils do right from right motives, you 
make them strong. The good man is the one who habitually 
does what he believes to be right. Training converts precept, 
example, and impulse into habit. " Train up a child in the way 
he should go," is the injunction of Infinite Wisdom, and it is the 
only successful method in moral education. 

7. Administer Punishments in Love. - See that the 
wrong-doer suffers the natural consequences of his acts. 
Kindly but firmly manage to have the pupils get right 
and keep right. See that the punishment works in the 
pupil a hatred of the wrong and a love of the right. 
Ponder before you act. Injudicious punishment is crim- 
inal. It breaks down manhood, and is a prolific source 
of human woe. 

8. Avoid all Shams. From the primary school to the 
university, our schools are weighted down with disgrace- 
ful shams. 

The method of study and recitation in which the book is re- 
peated verbatim is a sham. All teaching not founded in intelli- 
gence is a sham. Capricious, harsh, unjust, partial, and unloving 
government is a sham. Cramming for examinations is a sham. 
Bible-reading and prayer, when the heart is not in it, is a most 
shocking sham. The pupils know that they are surrounded by 
these transparent frauds; hence the moral influence of the teacher 
is destroyed. The teacher must be terribly in earnest. Sincerity 
and truth must shine in every act. As he hates sin, so must he 
abominate shams. 

9. Appeal to Conscience. Morality is positive, and is 
based upon the intuition, "I ought." All efforts at 
moral culture not rooted in conscience are shadowy as the 
visions of the night. 



152 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

Conscience is a rational emotion ; it impels us to do what we 
believe to be right. Conscience is a feeling of satisfaction in view 
of right-doing, or a feeling of remorse in view of wrong-doing. 
"An approving conscience is the smile of God; remorse, His 
frown." Veneration, honor to parents, truthfulness, honesty, cour- 
age, fidelity, virtue, benevolence, self-control — everything that ele- 
vates and ennobles — must be cultivated from the standpoint of 
conscience. This becomes, as it ought, the master impulse of the 
soul. Appetite, passion, selfishness, weakness, yield to the man- 
dates of conscience. An intelligent, conscientious man is the no- 
blest work of God — 

tl His mind clear as the mountain air, 
His heart pure as the driven snow." 

To produce such men is the grand end of education. The 
paramount work of every teacher is the culture of conscience ; 
and this is involved in all that is taught and all that is done in the 
school-room. 

Moral Instruction. (Pickard.) — " Any system of instruction which 
stops short of the development of a virtuous character makes a most 
signal failure. Power of brain and skill of hand will certainly add to 
the power for evil of a corrupt heart. All the requirements of a well- 
regulated school do indirectly minister to the formation of character. 
But direct and positive influences are needed. It is not safe to leave the 
child to the instruction of school routine. His style of life must be 
molded by the life of his teacher. He must feel the influence of a virtu- 
ous example. He must hear the voice of warning and of guidance. He 
must be taught the nature of law, its sanctions and its penalties. He 
must be made to see and comprehend the nature of liberty, its condi- 
tions and its limitations. He must be made to see the extent of his per- 
sonal rights, and their relation to the rights of other persons. All these 
should be enforced by motives springing from self-love — personal inter- 
est ; from benevolence — personal obligation to his fellows ; and from 
conscience — personal responsibility to a power above self and society. 
Fundamental to every system of moral instruction must be justice, rest- 
ing not upon the shifting sands of policy, but upon the solid rock of rec- 
titude." 



enforcement of school regulations. 153 
Topical Keview. — Enforcement of School Kegula- 

TIONS. 

Enforcement of regularity. 

1. Intensely interest the pupils. 

2. Interest the parents. 

3. Urge regularity as a duty. 

Enforcement of promptitude. 

1. Let the teacher be prompt. 

2. Train to the habit of promptitude. 

3. Impress the importance of promptitude. 

Enforcement of decorum. 

1. 2 he teacher should be a model of decorum. 

2. Show that decorum is an important condition of success. 

3. Teach decorum systematically. 
4-. Teach decorum incidentally. 
5. Train to habits of decorum. 

Enforcement of quiet. 

1. Be quiet yourself. 

2. Secure quiet from principle. 

3. Train pupils to do everything quietly. 

Communication. 

1. Appeal to principle. 

2. Never permit pupils to communicate. 

3. Anticipate and prevent. 

4. Tlirow around pupils the most favorable influences. 

Morality. 

1. All the impulses of the teacher must be pure. 

2. Teach morality systematically. 

3. Incidentally teach moral lessons. 

4. Work in the pupil a love of right. 

5. Attach one vice at a time. 

6. Train to the habit of right-doing. 

7. Administer punishment in love. 

8. Avoid all shams. 

9. Appeal to conscience. 



154 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

CHAPTER IV. 

principles pertaining to school punishments. 

Discipline is Instruction and Training in Duty. 
— Some use discipline as equivalent to school government. 
Here we use it in the sense of punishment in its relations 
to a life of duty. Conscience is the basis of discipline. 
Punishment — the intentional infliction of suffering upon 
offenders — is a mediate force used to quicken conscience . 
Suffering, mental or physical, wisely inflicted, educates 
conscience. As soon as conscience asserts its supremacy, 
punishment becomes unnecessary. The discipline of a 
school should be intrusted to no one unfamiliar with the 
science of duty, for everything of value to human beings 
is involved in this science. 

The Punishments Inflicted Test the Teacher's Qualifica- 
tions. — " The amount and kind of punishment inflicted at school is 
one of the best tests of a teacher's capacity and fitness for the 
station he occupies. No subject connected with school manage- 
ment is more delicate, none more important, and none requires 
more judgment, discretion, or wisdom. As a general rule, the 
best teachers are those who punish the least; and the wisest, 
those who make the best choice when punishment must be in- 
flicted. "Whatever savors of ill-temper or brutality, whatever 
tends to the injury of the body, mind, or sensibilities of the child, 
is to be unsparingly condemned." 

"What punishments to inflict, when to punish, and how to 
punish, are questions of infinite importance. Instead of seeking 
answers in eternal principles, our race has blundered on and pun- 
ishments have been inflicted in caprice or passion. The following 
are some of the important principles evolved by the experience 
and thought of the race, for the guidance of teachers and parents. 



SCHOOL PUNISHMENTS. 155 

I. Keformatory. — Punishment should be Reforma- 
tory, never Vindictive. All punishments should tend to 
benefit the punished. In the state, punishment is re- 
tributive and not necessarily corrective ; the state deals 
with adults. The school deals with children ; hence 
school punishments should be corrective rather than re- 
tributive. Vindictive punishment is satanic, and is never 
inflicted by God or by good men. The good of the pun- 
ished is the paramount consideration. 

II. Self-control. — Punishment should foster Self- 
control and Self-respect. Self-government alone is wor- 
thy of man. Punishments should tend to foster self- 
control by working in the offender a firm resolve to forsake 
the wrong and do the right. Punishments that crush 
manhood are fiendish. 

III. A Natural Consequence. — The Punishment 
should be a Natural Consequence of the Offense. This is 
a fundamental principle of the Divine government, and 
the more closely human governments conform to it, the 
better. Such punishments, seemingly retributive, are in 
fact corrective. The relation of the punishment to the 
offense should be profoundly studied before it is admin- 
istered. 

IV. Mild. — Punishments should be Mild, but Cer- 
tain. Undue severity creates sympathy for the offender. 
All semblance of cruelty should be avoided. Mild but 
certain punishments are most effective. 

V. Deliberate. — The lnflictio7i of Punishment 
should be Deliberate and. Infrequent. Not in anger nor 
in haste should the child be caused to suffer. If pos- 
sible, both teacher and ;pupil should have time for re- 
flection. By faithful teaching and wise management, 
offenses should be prevented and punishment averted. 



156 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

The almost continual and violent punishments inflicted 
by some teachers and parents are a crying evil. 

VI. Loving Heart. — The Loving Heart and Kind 
Word should accompany the Firm Hand. It grieves the 
teacher to inflict the punishment. The teacher suffers 
that he may benefit the child. The child realizes that 
the loving teacher suffers for him and with him. Con- 
science — a lively sense of duty — awakens. The punish- 
ment is effective. " But discipline can not overlook the 
use of suffering ; it is one of the important mediate forces, 
employed before conscience assumes the ascendancy and 
renders punishment unnecessary." 

VII. Educational. — Punishment should be made an 
Educational Means, and as such it should be essentially 
Corrective. It seeks always to bring the youth to a sense 
of his wrong-doing, and to produce a positive alteration in 
his behavior. It has for its aim his improvement. Every 
punishment must be looked upon as a means to an 
end. The pupil should always be conscious that it is 
painful to the teacher to punish him. Nothing can be 
more effectual as a means of cure for wrong-doing than 
for the wrong-doer to perceive in the manner, the tone of 
the voice, and the words, that he who punishes also suf- 
fers in order that the wrong-doer may be cured of his 
fault. "The principle of vicarious suffering lies at the 
root of all spiritual healing." 

Bentham's Principles. — The following are selected from Ben- 
tham's principles pertaining to punishment : 

1. The punishment following an offense should exceed the ap- 
parent advantage derived from its heing committed. 

2. The greater the offense, the greater should he the pains 
taken to secure its punishment. 



SCHOOL PUNISHMENTS. 157 

3. Punishment should never he greater than is needed to pre- 
vent a repetition of the offense. 

4. Regard should be paid to the sensibility of the offender, 
as dependent on age, sex, position, health. 

5. Punishments should be increased in magnitude as tbe detec- 
tion of the offense is uncertain or remote. 

6. When the offense is not an isolated act, but an act indicat- 
ing the existence of a habit, the punishment should outweigh the 
apparent advantages, not merely of the act, but of the habit. 

Goveknt:n"G Foeces. — Whatever moves to right-do- 
ing, and develops the power of self-government, is a gov- 
erning force in the educational sense. A brief outline of 
the governing forces is here submitted. 

1. Intellectual Foeoes. — " Brains control." Cultivated intel- 
lect rules the world. Intellect gives us systems and motives. 

(1.) System. Intellect matures plans and perfects systems. 
Intellect subjects impulse to reason aud establishes the reign of 
law. 

(2.) Motives. Intellect governs through motives. The gov- 
erned are led to act from high and ennobling motives. Wise 
management leads pupils to choose order. 

2. Moeal Foeces. — Ours is a world of duty. Man is a moral 
being, endowed with powers that enable him to appreciate and 
enjoy the right. 

(1.) Conscience impels to the Eight. The imperative I ought is 
a universal intuition. This is the central idea in all government. 
Without it, government, except by physical force, would be impos- 
sible. The teacher, by educating conscience, renders the pupil 
an upright, self-governing being. 

(2.) Affections. Eising above all the other faculties are en- 
throned the affections. Craving objects beyond self, they draw 
man into communion with his Maker and his kind. Happy the 
child impelled by love, and trained to do right because it is right ! 

3. Social Forges. — Man is a social being. Social influences 
act and react. Social forces to a great extent regulate society. 



158 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

(1.) Companionship. "A man is known by his company." 
" Evil associations corrupt good manners." Such truisms but indi- 
cate the great influence, for good or for evil, of companionship. 
Good companionship is a potent educational force, and one of the 
most powerful of the governing forces. 

(2.) Public Opinion. Ideas fight. Sentiments contend. Public 
opinion holds sway. Through public opinion the masters of assem- 
blies rule. The wise teacher creates and directs public opinion, 
and, through public opinion, governs. 

4. Will Fokoes. — Man is free and responsible. Will is the 
self-determining power of the soul. 

(1.) Self-control. We never break the child's will. We cherish 
free choice from rigbt motives. We develop the power of self- 
government. 

(2.) Firmness. The teacher is firm because he is right. 
Kindly but firmly he guides. The child is developed into a self- 
determining and self-acting man. Eight motives lead to right 
determinations and right actions. 

5. Physical Forces. — In school, as in society, the use of phys- 
ical force as a punishment sometimes becomes necessary; but, in 
the ratio that the higher forces control, it becomes unnecessary to 
use physical force. 

(1.) Restraints. This is probably the most effective way in 
which physical force can be used in school. By restraints even 
wild beasts are tamed. 

(2.) Pain. Some pupils can scarcely be influenced except 
through the body. In extreme cases, until higher motives can 
be brought to bear, it may be necessary to utilize this force. 

(3.) Comfort. Favorable physical conditions do vastly more 
than rules to secure good government. 

(4.) Recreation. This is a mighty governing force. If teach- 
ers and parents would profoundly and practically study the phi- 
losophy of recreation, they would find comparatively little need 
for punishments. 



SCHOOL PUNISHMENTS. 159 

Topical Review. — Peinciples pertaining to 
School Punishments. 

Discipline defined. 

1. Conscience is the basis of discipline. 

2. Punishment is a mediate force used to quicken conscience. 

3. Suffering tvisely inflicted educates conscience. 

Jf.. Punishment becomes unnecessary when conscience asserts its 
supremacy. 
The punishments inflicted test the teacher. 

1. The best teachers punish least. 

2. The wisest teachers choose the best punishments. 

3. Wliatever savors of ill-temper is condemned. 

Principles stated. 

1. Punishment should be reformatory. 
' 2. Punishment should foster self-control and self-respect. 
3. The punishment should be a consequence of the offense. 
jf,. Punishment should be mild, but certain. 

5. The infliction of punishment should be deliberate and infre- 

quent. 

6. The loving heart and kind word should accompany €ie firm 

hand. 

7. Punishment should be made an educational means. 

Bentham's principles relating to punishments. 

1. Tlie relations of punishments and offenses. 

2. The punishment should outweigh apparent advantages. 
The governing forces. 

1. Intellectual forces. 

2. Moral forces. 

3. Social forces. 

4. Will forces. 

5. Physical forces. 



160 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

CHAPTER V. 

JUDICIOUS AND INJUDICIOUS PUNISHMENTS. 

Punishments that tend to work in the child a love for 
the right and a hatred for the wrong are judicious. 
Such punishments will be found to accord with the fore- 
going principles, and will tend to make the pupil strong 
to do the right and to resist the wrong. 

Bentham gives the following as the characteristics of 
judicious punishments : 

1. Variability. — They should admit of degrees. 

2. Equability. — They should admit of equal application under 
all circumstances. 

3. Adequacy — To the offense committed. 

4. Special Suitability — To the nature of the offense. 

5. Exemplaeiness. — They should he impressive. 

6. Subserviency — To reformation. 

1. Public Populaeity. — They should not excite public sym- 
pathy in favor of the offender. 

8. Eemissibility — In case of repentance or of miscarriage of 
justice. 

As the best of all punishments, we begin with — 
I. Reproof. — This is an efficient corrective of most 
faults. Let teachers and parents learn rightly to admin- 
ister reproof, and they will find the child-heart responding 
as does the rose-bud to the summer sun. 

1. General Reproof is the mildest and most effective 
of all school punishments. It alone will suffice to cor- 
rect a majority of offenses. Some pupil has done wrong. 
At the proper time, in a low, earnest tone, the teacher 
speaks of the offense and the offender. No name is men- 
tioned, but the sincere hope is expressed that the offense 



JUDICIOUS AND INJUDICIOUS PUNISHMENTS. 161 

will not be repeated. Thus kindly and considerately 
dealt with, the pupil resolves to reform. Other pupils 
are strengthened by such reproof. The spirit of the school 
impels to the right. 

2. Private Reproof, administered in the right spirit, 
is wonderfully effective, and works marvelous results. 
General reproof has failed. The pupil continues to offend. 
The teacher seeks a strictly private interview. She ap- 
proaches the pupil with kind looks. In gentle words she 
shows him the tendencies of his conduct. She wishes to 
help him to become a man. Will he help himself ? 
Teacher and pupil stand heart to heart. The boy's heart 
is touched. He is saved. The loving heart and the wise, 
tender words are invincible. 

Public and private reproof alone are sufficient in a vast major- 
ity of cases. In an experience extending over more than a quar- 
ter of a century, I have seldom found it necessary to resort to 
other punishments. 

3. Public Reproof is a powerful but dangerous punish- 
ment. It should be used sparingly, and with discretion. 
Reprove not a child in the presence of another, is a safe 
and sacred rule. It is a fearful thing to break down the 
pupil's self-respect, and to blunt his regard for public 
opinion. 

But public opinion has its place. If the pupil can not be moved 
by either general or private reproof, a severer punishment becomes 
necessary. At a favorable moment the teacher presents the mat- 
ter to the school. It has become her painful duty to publicly 
reprove one of their number. She has labored earnestly to induce 
James to do right, but has failed. She mentions his name, not 
to wound his feelings, but to arouse him, and to give all the pupils 
an opportunity to aid him to correct his faults. All agree to help. 
The offender feels that he is in the hands of friends who mean to 



162 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

do him good. He feels ashamed of his conduct, and resolves to 
reform. The tremendous moral influence of the school strength- 
ens him. In the effort to aid another, each pupil is henefited. 
Silently but surely the work goes on. The erring one feels, re- 
flects, resolves — yields to the power of public sentiment and the 
promptings of his better nature. 

II. Pkivation. — Next to reproof, privation is the best 
of school punishments. While seemingly retributive, pri- 
vation is essentially corrective. 

President Nott, after an interview with the great horse-tamer, 
remarked that Rarey pursued the same system in training horses 
that he had for long years used in training boys ; that the secret 
could be told in two small words — kindness, power. 

Restraint is as necessary as love. The wayward must be dis- 
ciplined into respect for authority. Privations are the natural 
punishments for abused privileges. The pupil must be made to 
feel the consequences of his conduct. Reformation should be 
followed by restoration of the forfeited privilege. 

The following are a few of the ways in which this 
punishment may be used to advantage ; 

1. Deprive of Seat. A pupil who is very irregular, 
or who habitually communicates, or creates disturbance, 
forfeits his seat. Other offenses may be corrected by the 
same punishment. 

2. Deprive of Recess. Recess should be enjoyed by 
all the pupils ; but one who during recess mistreats others, 
uses improper language, or is guilty of bad conduct, should 
be detained. He may pass out alone after the usual re- 
cess. Tardiness may be punished in this way. 

3. Deprive of Recitation. The recitation should be 
esteemed a privilege. The teacher may excuse a pupil 
from class for repeated neglect in preparing lessons, for 
communication, for copying from others, for improper 



JUDICIOUS AND INJUDICIOUS PUNISHMENTS. 163 

conduct, or for rude answers. To be thus excused is 
keenly felt by most pupils. This punishment should not 
be inflicted for trivial cause. 

4. Deprive of Class Position. The standing of the 
pupil depends on faithful and successful work. The 
negligent will naturally fall into lower and still lower 
classes. The time may come when such pupils may even 
forfeit their positions in school. These backward move- 
ments should be prevented if possible. Barely do they 
result in good to the pupils or to the school. 

5. Deprive of Certain Privileges. Privation of a privi- 
lege should follow its abuse. The pupil will recognize 
the justice of the punishment. If inflicted in kindness 
and sorrow, this punishment is powerful to effect refor- 
mation. 

5. Keeping after School. Except as a £>enalty for 
offenses committed while returning from school, this 
punishment is seldom justifiable. A boy mistreats younger 
pupils, or is quarrelsome, or uses bad language ; as a 
natural consequence, he is deprived of the privilege of 
returning home with the other scholars. 

" This method of punishment might, if the teachers were all 
judicious, he resorted to occasionally with good effect ; but teach- 
ers are not all judicious, and thousands of children are thus de- 
tained every day, to whom the detention is a serious injury and a 
grave injustice. For some trifling breach of order, like turning 
in the seat or dropping a pencil, for some small failure in a recita- 
tion, and often for no fault at all — whole classes being kept on 
account of the indolence of some of their members, and the 
innocent thus suffering with the guilty— the children are shut up 
in the school-house, sometimes during the intermissions, often 
after the close of school. Thousands of children in delicate 
health, to whom the regular school hours are too long, are per- 
manently injured by this system of confinement." 



164 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

7. Deprive of Favor. The pupil is insolent ; he forfeits 
your approval. The pupil is idle ; you praise the studious. 
The approval of the teacher is a wonderful incentive to 
good conduct ; the disapproval of the faithful teacher is 
always a severe punishment. But praise or blame should 
never be lightly bestowed. 

Slight as are the privations named, they work marvelous re- 
sults. The imperative of conscience, " Do right because it is 
right" is wonderfully stimulative. Silently, slowly, but surely, the 
pupil is trained to govern himself. The foundation is laid for a 
noble manhood. 

III. Deportment Marks. — The pupil begins with a 
standing of 100 in deportment ; only improper conduct 
can lower his standing. The daily conduct of the pupil 
makes its own record on the mind of the wide-awake 
teacher. At the close of the month or quarter the de- 
portment is recorded in the register, and a report is sent 
to the parent. 

1. Grades and Reports. From 100 to 90, excellent ; 
from 90 to 80, good ; from 80 to 70, passable ; from 70 to 
60, poor. The words, never the figures, should be re- 
ported or published. Some schools use cards of four 
colors to represent the four words, and report the class 
standing on these cards. 

2. Correct Marking. Great care and strict impartiality 
are necessary. The marking must be on general conduct, 
and not on specific violations of the regulations. What 
record has the pupil really made ? If you hesitate, always 
give the pupil the benefit of the doubt. Exert yourself 
to the utmost to prevent any pupil from falling below 70 
in deportment. 

3. Injudicious Marking has brought all marking into 
disrepute. Some teachers carry it to the extreme, and the 



JUDICIOUS AND INJUDICIOUS PUNISHMENTS. 165 

conduct of their pupils has reference to the marking 
rather than to the right. Others continually mark for 
specific offenses, and thus make themselves recording 
machines. Then, the marking is often glaringly unjust. 
Some incorporate self-reporting, with all its evils, with 
deportment marking. 

4. No Marking is considered better than injudicious 
marking. Hence some educators oppose all marking for 
deportment. They tell us that, in the hands of the av- 
erage teacher, this punishment proves a serious injury. 

5. Doubtful Punishment. Marking deportment is con- 
sidered by some prominent educators, to say the least, as 
a doubtful punishment. Superintendent Elliot, in his 
report of the Boston schools, expresses great pleasure in 
the assurance that some of the teachers are trying to 
dispense with deportment marks. He says: "No one 
disputes the necessity of rewards and punishments in edu- 
cation. They exist there, as they exist everywhere else, 
self-administered, if not administered by others — the in- 
evitable attendants upon honor or shame through life. 
But with regard to those which a teacher is to use, there 
is now a great diversity of opinions — some clinging to 
tradition, and others breaking away from it, in search of 
better influences. " He defines a true reward as that which 
gives greater power first to know, and then to choose and 
do, the right ; and a true punishment as one which lessens 
the power of doing and of being wrong, and shakes the 
hold of evil from the heart. He says that such rewards 
and punishments are indispensable ; but deportment 
marks and all such rewards and punishments are to be 
given only by those who believe in mere outward restraints. 
The principle is correct, but the application is erroneous. 
The pupil who does well is entitled to approval ; high de- 



166 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

portment marks express approval. The persistently ■way- 
ward deserve the disapproval shown by low deportment 
marks. This punishment is a natural consequence of ha- 
bitually bad conduct. But it is simply idiotic to rely 
upon marking to cure all the ills of the school-room. No 
one can too severely censure marking as it is often done. 

6. Marking is a Silent Force. As such it should be 
permitted to exert its influence for good. Seldom should 
the teacher refer to it, and never should he urge this as 
an incentive to good conduct. The punishment follows, 
as in nature and society, as a result of improper courses 
of conduct. 

IV. Suspension - . — Eeproof and privations are the only 
punishments ordinarily needed in school or family. The 
management should be so systematic and vigorous as to 
render severer punishments unnecessary. Still, in rare 
cases, the teacher maybe compelled to resort to suspension, 
expulsion, or corporal punishment. When demanded, he 
should have the courage and judgment to use these punish- 
ments effectively. Weak teachers continually resort to 
suspension ; strong teachers rarely use this punishment. 
But suspension is the best of the severer punishments. 
Eightly managed, it results in the good of the suspended 
as well as the good of the school. Who should suspend ? 
When ? How ? How long ? How may the suspended 
be restored ? Teachers must be prepared to act the answers 
to these questions. Success or failure may depend upon 
the course pursued. 

1. The Teacher Suspends. Charged with the govern- 
ment of the school, familiar with all the conditions, and 
seeking only the good of all concerned, the teacher un- 
questionably should exercise the right of suspension. This 
right should be vested in the teacher by law or by contract. 



JUDICIOUS AND INJUDICIOUS PUNISHMENTS. 167 

Even in the absence of law, the teacher's position gives 
him the right to suspend. So decide the authorities. 

Superintendent Wickersham holds that " a teacher may suspend 
a pupil until the school-board can be called to act in the case.'' 
Judge Vincent sustains this decision. This position is held to be 
correct by the authorities in all the States. It is founded upon 
necessity. Order must be maintained. The teacher suspends, sub- 
ject to the action of the legal authorities. Except in cases of gross 
injustice, the school-board should sustain the teacher. Fellow 
teacher, govern your own school. Earely trouble the school offi- 
cers. If the suspended pupil wishes action on the part of the school- 
board, let him call a meeting of the board. When the matter comes 
up, calmly and f airly state the case, and abide by the decision. 

2. Causes for Suspension. This punishment should 
be used with great discretion. The age and character of 
the pupil, the necessity, and the probable effects must be 
duly considered. 

(1.) Insubordination is a leading cause for suspension. A pupil 
who refuses to comply with the requirements of the teacher should 
be suspended, if he can not otherwise be led to submit. The 
teacher's authority must be maintained. 

(2.) Gross misconduct demands suspension. The school-room 
is not the place for miscreants. "We need houses of correction for 
these unfortunates. The school and the community should be re- 
lieved from their contaminating influence. 

(3.) Chronic irregularity justifies suspension. In many schools 
the pupil is suspended for the term, if absent without good reason 
for two days in any month. In some institutions tardiness suspends 
from class privileges for the day. 

(4.) Little offenses, if continually repeated, do great injury and 
give the teacher much trouble. Such offenders are sometimes 
effectually cured by a short suspension. 

(5.) General worthlessness necessitates suspension. The school 
is a workshop. Earnest effort is the condition on which its priv- 
ileges may be enjoyed. The teacher has exhausted his resources, 



168 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

and failed. The pupil can not be induced to work. Suspension 
may arouso him. 

3. Hoiv to Suspend. The management lias been such 
that the pupils feel that the offender should be suspended. 
The teacher has used all possible effort to save the pupil, 
and failed. Suspension has become a necessity. The 
school must be freed from demoralizing influences, and 
the pupil must be placed in a position favorable to reflec- 
tion and reformation. 

The case has been carefully considered. At the close of school, 
the teacher, in an earnest tone, speaks somewhat as follows: " It 
becomes my painful duty to suspend one of your number. You 
know how hard we have all tried to induce James to do right. 
It grieves me that we have failed. James, you are suspended from 
all the privileges of the school. I hope you will reflect on your 
conduct. Whenever you make up your mind to do right, como 
and tell me, and we will gladly welcome you back." A few such 
remarks will do much to direct public opinion, and to render the 
punishment effective. 

4. Length of Suspension. The time may be definite 
or indefinite. Short periods are usually best, but the time 
must not be so short as to bring the punishment into con- 
tempt. Indefinite suspension fixes no limit. 

5. Restoration. The restoration of a suspended pupil 
is a delicate duty, requiring judgment and skill. The 

t pupil should realize that the past is buried, and that he is 
permitted to begin anew. Attention is called to the fol- 
lowing points : 

(1.) Eestore a pupil whenever he gives satisfactory evidence of 
a determination to do right. 

(2.) So manage that the conduct of the restored pupil sball be 
especially exemplary. He will be closely observed. 



JUDICIOUS AND INJUDICIOUS PUNISIIMENTS. 169 

(3.) In no case should the school-board restore a pupil without 
the approval of the teacher. 

V. Expulsion. — Suspension temporarily deprives the 
pupil of the privileges of the school ; expulsion severs his 
connection with the school. Suspension looks to the good 
of the pupil as well as to the good of the school ; expulsion 
looks alone to the good of the school. 

1. Not a School Punishment. Expulsion is not de- 
signed as a school punishment. " After all other means 
have failed, a pupil may he expelled for disobedient, re- 
fractory, or incorrigibly bad conduct." Thus decides the 
Supreme Court of Illinois. Expulsion is not reformatory ; 
hence it can not be classed with school punishments. 

2. Causes for Expulsion. " A pupil may be expelled 
for gross immorality, or a persistent violation of the school 
regulations." (School law of most States.) This law is 
sustained by the courts and by public opinion. 

3. Who Expel. Expulsion is the act of the school- 
board, never of the teacher of a district school. Princi- 
pals of graded schools and faculties of higher institutions 
are usually authorized to suspend the wayward and expel 
the incorrigible. 

4. Precaution . Expulsion is an expedient to relieve 
the school of the corrupting influence of the utterly 
unworthy. Eare, indeed, are the cases that justify this 
terrible punishment. Ponder long before cutting off op- 
portunity and hope even from the most unworthy. Act 
as if the unfortunate one were your own child. 

5. Etiquette. A pupil expelled from one school will 
be refused admittance into other schools. This custom 
renders expulsion doubly severe. 

After laving down these somewhat elaborate principles, the 
writer, with Bentham, is strongly inclined to say to teachers, 



170 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

" And thus having shown you when to punish and how to punish, 
let me advise you to have as little to do with punishment as you 
can help." See if you can not, by moral suasion, by precaution, 
by improved methods of organization and instruction, and by the 
bonds of affection established between you and your pupils, pre- 
vent offenses, and thereby avoid the necessity for punishment. 
If you must punish, try the effects of light punishments, such as 
reproof and restraints, before having recourse to severer punish- 
ments. You will be a good teacher in proportion to your ability 
to dispense with these. Few things have more hindered the art 
of education than the abuse of punishment. 

VI. Injudicious School Punishments. — Punish- 
ments which Violate Principles are to be Avoided. Pun- 
ishments injurious in their tendencies are injudicious and 
should be tabooed. Their name is legion ; only some of 
the more common are here classed. 

1. Unusual Punishments commonly prove to be Inju- 
dicious. Punishments approved by public sentiment will 
generally be found safest and best. Teachers who rack 
their brains to invent new tortures render themselves 
unpopular, and hence less successful. The preceding pun- 
ishments are abundantly sufficient. 

2. Cowardly Punishments are always Injudicious. 
Children not less than adults despise a mean, cowardly 
person, who wantonly punishes the helpless. 

Scolding, censure accompanied by threats, is one of the mean- 
est of this class of punishments. It is the rasping utterance of a 
chafed and cowed spirit. The sour, whining, threatening dys- 
peptic keeps the school continually irritated. The wise and 
sweet-tempered teacher or parent never scolds, never threatens, 
never irritates. The wretchedness caused by this cowardly pun- 
ishment is beyond computation. Persons to whom the habit of 
scolding has become chronic should be excluded from the school- 



JUDICIOUS AND INJUDICIOUS PUNISHMENTS. 171 

3. Threats are Univortliy of the Teacher. Nature 
makes no threats ; but a mild, certain punishment follows 
violated law. The teacher can not follow a better model. 
Foreshadowing consequences are not threats. 

4. Nagging is a Contemptible Punishment. It means 
constant, vexatious, irritating talk and action. 

"Teachers are sometimes guilty of nagging. They do not 
scold, nor reprove, nor punish outright ; better if they did. The 
victim perhaps reports in this way : ' The teacher is always at me.' 
This is a mistaken policy. The average child is susceptible, and 
responds promptly to generosity, confidence, and obvious good 
will. "When the child-heart feels that the teacher wishes, re- 
spects, and enjoys goodness in the pupil, it has the strongest mo- 
tive to be good. But let the dark suspicion once get into the 
mind, ' My teacher likes me to fail and trip, so that he can be 
down upon me,' and the influence of the teacher for good is 
gone ; the child-heart is so embittered as to bring forth only evil 
instead of good, and the great end of education is defeated." 

5. Cruel Punishments work Harm. Placing pepper 
on the tongue, putting split sticks on the ears, having 
pupils stand long on one foot, having pupils hold weights 
at arm's length, etc., are of this class. All tortures, all 
harsh and cruel punishments, are injudicious. 

6. Head Punishments are Improper. The head, the 
immediate organism through which the soul acts, is a 
sacred thing. Slapping, boxing, pulling the nose, ears, 
or hair, are indignities to which no child should be sub- 
jected. If you must use corporal punishment, I beg you 
to spare the head. 

7. Degrading Punishments are Educational Mistalces. 
No means should be spared to have the child think well 
of himself. Punishments having an opposite tendency 
are monstrous, and teachers who take a fiendish pleasure 



172 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

in degrading and demeaning their pupils are human 
monsters. 

8. Vindictive Punishments injure both Parties. Any 
punishment administered in anger is more or less vin- 
dictive. That a parent or teacher should punish a child 
simply to gratify spleen, and without reference to the 
good of the child, is hard to conceive. That such punish- 
ment is common is a humiliating fact. 

9. Keeping in will generally prove to he an injudicious 
punishment. 

" To retain a pupil after school hours as a practice, hoping to 
create a new interest in tho pupil hy asking him to confine his 
attention for a longer time to the incomplete study, is an unwise 
measure. And if he is kept as a punishment, the teacher is more 
punished than the pupil ; for the two are looking at each other 
with no kind feeling. Each is tired, nervous, and exhausted. 
Besides, ofttimes, there is physical incapacity in the case. So 
long a time the mind can be confined, and no longer, to one sub- 
ject, or to similar subjects. Let the pupil go home, or at least 
go into the fresh air. If tho teacher will take a walk with his 
to-be-punished pupil, and after the lapse of half an hour spent in 
the open air return to the school-room, some good may result." 

It is a fearful thing to punish improperly. Erring 
man should ponder long before punishing a little immor- 
tal, 

"Over whom the angels watch." 

Injudicious punishments tend to crush out the noblest 
traits of child-nature — tend to foster all hateful passions. 



JUDICIOUS AND INJUDICIOUS PUNISHMENTS. 173 

Topical Review. — Judicious and Injudicious 
Punishments. 

Reproof. 

1. General reproof. 2. Private reproof. 

3. Public reproof. 

Privation. 

1. Deprive of seat. 

2. Deprive of recess. 

3. Deprive of recitation. 

4. Deprive of class position. 

5. Deprive of certain privileges. 

6. Keeping after school. 

7. Deprive of favor. 

Deportment marks. 

1. Grades and reports. 

2. Correct marking. 

3. Objections to this punishment. 

4. Marking a silent but effective force. 

Suspension. 

1. The teacher suspends. 

2. Causes for suspension. 

3. How to suspend. 

4- Length of suspension. 5. Restoration. 

Expulsion. 

1. Not properly a school punishment. 

2. Causes for expulsion. 

3. The school-board expels. 

4. Ponder long before resorting to expulsion. 

Injudicious punishments. 

1. Unusual punishments. 

2. Cowardly punishments. 

3. Threatening. 4- lagging. 

5. Cruel punishments. 6. Head punishments. 

7. Degrading punishments. S. Vindictive punishments. 

9. Keeping in for small offenses. 



174 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

CHAPTEK VI. 

COEPOEAL PUNISHMENT. 

I. Conclusions Reached. — Corporal Punishment is 
the Intentional Infiicton of Physical Suffering as a Re- 
formatory Means. Under this head are included all modes 
of inflicting physical pain as punishment. 

1. " The Practice of inflicting Corporal Punishment upon 
Scholars has no Sanction out Usage. The teacher is required to 
keep good order ; if he can not keep the order that is necessary 
to enable him to properly instruct the scholar without inflicting 
corporal punishment, he is by usage allowed to inflict it. At the 
same time, as there is no law to warrant it, he is liable to the 
party injured as for an assault committed elsewhere. It is true 
that usage generally accepts the judgment of the teacher as to its 
necessity. 

2. " The Law recognizes the Teaclier in Loco Parentis. That is, 
lie may do what a parent would do, or ought to do, to his child ; 
the teacher is the agent of the parent. And, besides, the law 
allows him to do what is needful to effect the purposes for which 
he was appointed. He is to maintain sufficient order to enable 
the school work to go on ; and if he be intruded upon, he has a 
right to maintain his control of the building. Suppose a stranger 
comes in and annoys the school ; he may be ejected. Suppose a 
pupil seats himself at the desk and refuses to leave ; he may be 
removed by force. 

3. '' The Law gives the Teacher the Benefit of the Doult, as it 
is called. That is, it supposes the teacher to have acted from the 
best motives — that he did not aim to do more than was necessary. 
If the punishment is excessive, it must be clearly shown to be so. 
The law says the teacher must be the judge when correction is 
necessary, and how much must be administered. 

4. " It must de repeated that the law does not vest in the teacher 
the power to punish; it is vested there l>y usage alone. It grows 



CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. 175 

out of the nature of t?ie case that he must have authority to 
govern his school. The exercise of his authority is acquiesced in 
by the community, and invariably sustained by the courts, on the 
ground of common custom." {New York " School Journal."") 

5. Teachers Sustained. The decision of Judge Street is uni- 
formly sustained by the courts : " It is one of the duties of a 
school-teacher to maintain order in school during school hours, 
and enforce obedience to reasonable rules. For that purpose, 
when necessary, the teacher may inflict reasonable corporal pun- 
ishment. What may be reasonable and proper punishment in a 
given case depends a great deal on the circumstances of such case. 
In cases of trial on a charge of excessive punishment, of course 
the jury must determine from the evidence how severe the punish- 
ment was, and whether or not, in the given case, it was excessive 
or unreasonable. In every case it ought to stop short of brutality, 
or serious or lasting bodily injuries. Within such boundaries it 
may go to the extent of securing the obedience of the scholar, 
and, of course, should be measured somewhat by the degree of 
obstinacy, disobedience, and willful conduct of the pupil, even 
though it leaves some marks upon the surface of the skin or body. 
As I have said, the law does not sanction brutal punishment, or 
such as inflicts great, serious, or lasting bodily injuries ; but there 
may be cases which will cause all right-minded persons to regret 
that physical strength upon the part of the teacher failed to re- 
duce willful, disobedient, perverse, and obstinate scholars to obe- 
dience. Punishment should begin in moderation, and if the child 
then fails to mind, and becomes perverse, stubborn, insubordinate, 
and profane, and continues in such conduct, it may be rightly 
increased, even though it becomes so severe as to cause the pupil 
punished to wear its stripes." 

6. Corporal Punishment may be Prohibited. This punishment 
is prohibited by law in a few countries. In this country it is left 
to the school-boards to determine. In some cities the school- 
boards prohibit its use. Unless positively prohibited, it is held 
that the teacher has the right to inflict corporal punishment. 

7. Corporal Punishment is Undesirable. Public opinion is de- 
cidedly against it in the concrete, though approving it in the ab- 



176 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

stract. Its infliction is apt to involve the teacher in trouble. 
There is danger of alienating both pupil and parent. Worst of 
all, it tends to excite anger, and to harden the sensibilities of the 
teacher. Besides, it is liable to monstrous abuses. Only in the 
extremest cases, and after all other means have failed, should this 
punishment be inflicted. 

8. The True Doctrine — Grant the Right, out Avoid the Use. 
The world's educators, with singular unanimity, approve this 
doctrine. The fact that the teacher may and will resort to cor- 
poral punishment, if it becomes necessary, exerts a salutary in- 
fluence. > 

In the ideal school, taught by the ideal teacher, this punish- 
ment is not necessary. In the average school, taught by the aver- 
age teacher, it may be necessary. In all schools those teachers 
who seldom or never resort to corporal punishment should be 
held in the highest esteem. They have learned the art of govern- 
ing through nobler motives. 

II. Infliction of Coepokal Punishment. — The 
utmost discretion and tact is needed. Often the teacher 
rather than the pupil deserves the punishment. If this 
punishment must he resorted to, let it be inflicted de- 
cently and humanely. 

1. Tlie Infliction should le Private. The sacred prin- 
ciple that one child must not be corrected in the presence 
of another has a double significance here. Only in cases 
demanding publicity should the infliction take place in 
the presence of the school. Are there such cases ? 

2. The Punishment should he Moderate. It is the 
moral power of the teacher, and not the severe pain, that 
proves effective. This punishment simply enables the 
teacher to reach the nobler nature of the child. In many 
cases a single stroke is sufficient. Severity and cruelty 
are universally condemned. It is safest to err on the side 
of mercy. 



CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. 177 

3. The Instrument should de the Bod. The time- 
honored birch is the fittest instrument. The ferule, the 
strap, the cat-of -nine-tails, are instruments of torture, to 
be shunned by the teacher. 

4. TJie Bach and Shoulders are the fittest Bortions of 
the Body to inflict. Avoid all slapping, pulling ears or 
hair, shaking, or thumping. Hold the head sacred. 
Never break down the self-respect of the child. 

5. Bunish in Love. You are the pupil's friend, and 
seek his good. You grieve to be compelled to punish 
him thus. You suffer most. The rod alone is powerless 
for good. The magic power of love does the work. The 
pain is soon forgotten, but the heartfelt sympathy of the 
teacher is like seed planted in the pupil's soul, destined 
to develop into a noble life. 

6. The Bunishment should he Deliberate!- Prepare 
the pupil by leading him to realize its necessity. Calmly 
strike a single stinging blow. Talk earnestly for a min- 
ute or two, then give another blow, a little more se- 
vere. Thus administered, not many blows (seldom more 
than three or four) will be needed. Whenever the de- 
termination has taken possession of the pupil to for- 
sake the wrong and do the right, the punishment should 
cease. 

III. Treatment after Punishment. — This should be 
tender and considerate. Reformation is a growth. The 
pupil must be won back to right feelings and right con- 
duct. Let every look and word and act show him how 
much you are his friend. Encourage him, stimulate 
him, guide him. 

Thus administered and thus followed, corporal punishment 
becomes a great moral power. But may not the teacher who can 
thus administer this punishment succeed even better without it ? 



178 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

IV. Advocates of Corporal Punishment. — Most 
of the great educators favor some form of corporal punish- 
ment in extreme cases. 

1. Solomon. " The rod and reproof give wisdom, but a child 
left to himself brings his mother to shame. Whom the Lord 
loves, he corrects, even as a father corrects the son in whom he 
delights." 

2. Locke. " There is one, and but one fault, for which I think 
children should be beaten ; and that is obstinacy or rebellion." 

3. Horace Mann. " Corporal punishment should never be in- 
flicted but in cases of extremest necessity." 

4. Bosenkranz. " Corporal punishment implies physical pain. 
Generally it consists of a whipping, and is perfectly justifiable in 
cases of persistent defiance of authority, of obstinate carelessness, 
or of malicious evil-doing. Corporal punishment is proper so long 
and so often as the higher perceptions of the offender are closed 
against appeal." 

5. Kennedy. " Boards of education, instead of dismissing dis- 
orderly teachers, have dismissed corporal punishment, which is 
equivalent to dismissing discipline and accepting disorder." 

6. Orcutt. " Rebellion should be met by stunning, crushing 
blows. Mildness is cruelty. Such cases demand instant and 
determined action. Moral suasion is not the remedy for bold, 
defiant violations of law." 

7. Wickersham. " An open or premeditated act of disobedi- 
ence may be punished by personal chastisement. The teacher 
must either compel the pupil to obey, or suspend him. I prefer 
the former alternative. It is one of the few cases in which the 
rod will do good." 

8. Page. " I do not hesitate to teach that corporal infliction 
is one of the justifiable means of establishing authority in the 
school-room." 

9. Anna G. Brackett. " Physical pain is the poorest way to 
accomplish the end which we should aim at in all our punish- 
ments. Its proper use is with animals who can not be reasoned 
with in any other way, and with children for so long a time as they 



CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. 179 

are animals. For offenses arising from the animal nature cor- 
poral punishment is the proper correction ; and it is much to be 
regretted that the whipping-post has been entirely abolished, for 
no punishment could be more appropriate for the man who delib- 
erately insults a woman either by word or deed." 

10. Ogden. " There is fortunately and designedly a close 
connection between the bodily sensibilities and the mental and 
moral. The intellect, the sensibility, and the will are all more 
or less affected by any suffering that may be inflicted upon the 
nervous sensibility ; and if, when inflicted, there is a clear appre- 
hension on the part of the sufferer as to its intent, and if it be 
administered in a proper spirit and in a proper quantity, it follows 
that, unless the subject of such punishment is beyond the reach 
of reformation, this means may and will reclaim him. 

" (1.) The infliction should be upon the back, shoulders, and 
lower extremities, since there is less danger of sustaining injury 
from the infliction of blows on those parts; but never upon the 
hands, head, or face, or any other place where it would injure 
the person or offer any indignities. 

" (2.) Manner. Private punishment will be most effective. 

" (3.) Instrument. The instrument should be a switch. 

" (4.) Frequency. The blows should not be repeated oftener 
than about once in half a minute; and for some purposes the 
intervals might even be prolonged beyond this time. 

" I venture to say that nearly all the hardest cases in our 
schools, if treated in a sensible manner, might be reformed." 

11. Bicknel. " We would counsel teachers always to exercise 
the utmost caution and wisdom in the use of the rod, but we are 
far from taking the high ground of denying the teacher's right 
and duty to have recourse to it. The true aim of all school dis- 
cipline should be to stimulate such action in life as proceeds from 
the correct idea of duty. Such motives should be presented as 
will lead the child to obey rightful authority because he is under 
the highest moral obligations to do so. If love of doing right in 
the abstract, or the better-understood feeling of a child, love for 
his parents or his teacher, do not influence him to obedience, then 
we say that it may be the duty, as it is obviously the right, of the 



180 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

teacher judiciously to inflict corporal punishment. Therefore we 
plead earnestly, in behalf of the conscientious teachers of the land, 
that all the facts concerning reported excessive punishments may 
be fairly considered before the teacher is condemned." 

V. Opponents of Corpoeal Punishment. — That 
some of the great educators belong to this class can not 
be denied. These all speak about as follows : 

1. Spencer. " Savageness begets savageness. Great severity 
of punishment does but little good — nay, great harm — in educa- 
tion." 

2. Lyman Cobb. " I conscientiously believe that corporal 
punishment, as a means of discipline, is adverse to the proper, 
full, and happy development of the social, moral, religious, and 
intellectual character of those who are flogged ; and because, also, 
I believe it has a degrading and hardening influence on those who 
receive it, and those who inflict it." 

3. " London Globe.' 1 '' "This much, at least, it would be folly 
to deny : the stanchest advocates of physical force would probably 
concede that the teacher who can not manage his boys without 
resort to the rod is not a fully competent teacher. They would 
admit that he is not fully and completely equipped for his post." 

4. Bentham. " The pains opposed to the pleasures of self- 
esteem and praise are among the most powerful weapons in the 
armory of the disciplinarian. They are the chief reliance of such 
as deprecate corporal inflictions." Bentham's elaborate scheme 
of discipline in the " Ohrestomathia " is a manipulation of the mo- 
tives of praise and dispraise, which he would fain make us believe 
to be all-sufficient. 

5. " Teacher's Manual." " If absolutely indispensable, it should 
be administered in private, or with only a few witnesses. Public 
corporal punishment has a tendency to brutalize all who take 
part in it and witness it, and is less effective as a deterrent to 
others than a punishment which is unseen. Moreover, there is 
less risk, when the punishment is inflicted in private, that the 
offender will assume a tone of bravado, and that the punisher will 
engage in an unseemly contest with him." 



CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. 181 

6. A Writer in the "Chicago Medical Journal" says: "My 
attention has for a number of years been called to injuries caused 
by occasional cases of too severe or recklessly executed punish- 
ment of school-children. Foremost educators, while not believ- 
ing it expedient to prohibit corporal punishment, acknowledge 
that injury, injustice, and sometimes death even, do now and 
then occur from its use. These serious results may arise from 
fright or from concussion of the brain, produced by merely jerk- 
ing the children about, or — the most frequent cause — inflicting 
the punishment upon the child's head. I have known death to 
occur solely from the fright, although fatal results are not likely to 
arise except from immediate blows upon the head. No one form 
of punishment is so dangerous as boxing the child upon the ear. 
Not only is injury to the organ of hearing often produced, but in- 
flammation of the brain frequently follows, and death has been 
the result. If corporal punishment is allowed at all in schools, 
its use ought to be carefully guarded. No teacher should be al- 
lowed to punish a child by rudely jerking it about, by striking it 
anywhere on the head, or with any instrument whatever, except 
it be flexible and with smooth edges. These requisites are best 
fulfilled by a medium-sized rod." 

VI. Ground of Opposition". — The arguments against 
corporal punishment are, for the most part, founded upon 
its abuse ; but the widest experience as well as the sound- 
est philosophy recpiires its retention as a school punish- 
ment. The highly skillful may never need to use this 
punishment ; good teachers will use it sparingly and 
wisely ; only bunglers will resort to it as a common pun- 
ishment. In another generation flogging in the school 
will be regarded as capital punishment is now regarded 
in the state. 



182 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 



CHAPTER VII. 

REPORTS OF SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT, AND MANAGEMENT 
OF INDIVIDUAL PUPILS. 

I. Detailed Reports Demanded. — The medical 
profession holds in high esteem the numerous volumes 
giving the detailed practice of able physicians. Not less 
valuable to the professional teacher would be volumes 
containing the specific management of skillful educators, 
giving in detail the treatment of special schools, special 
difficulties, and special pupils. A score of such books by 
masters of the art of school management, like Arnold of 
Rugby and President Nott of Union College, would be 
esteemed above all price. 

II. The Inexperienced Teacher needs Concrete 
Oases. — The normal school, the normal institute, the 
educational journal, and individual observation furnish 
these to a large extent ; but the cases need to be more 
numerous, and should take a wider range. A knowledge 
of modes of management of the wisest teachers is needed. 

III. Such Reports are Highly Suggestive to 
Teachers. — No wise teacher will be a mere imitator. 
History never repeats itself. No two cases are ever 
exactly alike ; but cases may be similar, and a report of 
one may suggest the proper treatment of another. The 
sensible teacher will adapt the treatment to the school 
and to the individual pupils. He will never copy, nor 
ever become a mere imitator. 

IV. Disorderly Schools, Pupils, or Parents 
need Special Treatment. — Like the skillful physician, 
the able teacher seeks to discover the cause of the dis- 



SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT. 183 

order, and he then devotes all his efforts to remove the 
cause and effect a cure. We have space merely for a few 
illustrative examples. 

V. Management of Disoedekly Schools. — Treat 
each case on its merits. 

1. Disorder from Physical Discomfort. Eemove the 
causes. Render the scats more comfortahle ; improve the 
heating and ventilation ; secure abundant exercise ; create 
an atmosphere of cheerfulness and content. 

2. Disorder from Coughing. Nothing is more conta- 
gious than coughing. This disorder demands prompt 
attention. A successful teacher says : 

" My remedy is, to select one, two, or three of the worst, who 
really can not control the cough, and send them home for the half- 
day with proper explanations, and then require the rest to stop. 
It needs some tact to accomplish this. For example, one hoy has 
just had a sudden and violent attack, and he douhtless expects to 
he the next one excused. I call him to me, give him a drink, and 
engage his attention for a short time with something new — a pic- 
ture, perhaps, or a little problem — and then dismiss him to his 
seat, saying that, as he has already stopped coughing, he need not 
begin again; and, adding a few pointed remarks to the school, I 
seldom fail to hold the evil in check." 

3. Disorder from a Rough, Turbulent Class of Pupils. 

" I have a large school, an average attendance of fifty-three. 
I have a very hard time. The trouble is that the boys will fight, 
and lie, and steal, and. whisper. Now will you tell me what I can 
do to break up this state of things? I candidly do not blame 
these children so very much ; their parents are probably as bad. 
I know they are ignorant, and exercise no moral influence on their 
children. I am almost completely discouraged. Can you say 
anything to help me? " 

An able teacher answers : 



184 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

" You have a heavy task, yet take courage. You must look 
over your school, and single out some whom you will make your 
assistants — young apostles. You must instruct them, and infuse 
your life and soul into them. You must interest your scholars ; 
tell them some stories that will certainly interest them. Do not 
make them too long; don't have them prosy; don't attempt any 
preachment : simply interest them. And you must have system. 
The worst men can be made into soldiers, and they will fight well 
because there is a system in the army. SpeaTc little. Practice a 
class in coming and going, until it moves right, if it takes you all 
day. This is the secret of the discipline of all large schools. Do 
not worry ; be cheerful. Get up an interest in the lessons. Some- 
how, get them to studying, by smiles, by praise, etc. Pick out 
the leaders, the troublesome ones, and take them singly, and try 
your influence on them ; get them to help you, to be your assist- 
ants. Call on the parents and talk with them ; make them glad 
you have called. Don't complain of John or Henry ; tell them 
however, that you want them to improve, and what they should 
do. Get up some exercises to call their parents in — some dialogues, 
etc. ; it gives an interest to the school-room. Examine your own 
manner carefully; see whether you scold, or fret, or lose your 
balance or dignity. Improve your manner day by day. One half 
of the fault is there. Resolve to be mistress, not physically, but 
mentally, morally, by the force of your will. Study to be a power 
in that school -room." 

4. Disorder caused ly Wliispering. Many teachers ask, 
" How can I stop whispering ? " I answer — by stopping it. 

The Stoey of Joseph. — My first teacher permitted us to study 
"out loud." My next teachers prohibited loud studying, but 
placed no restrictions on whispering. After that we had a Yan- 
kee teacher, who prohibited all whispering. I could not start to 
school until the corn was gathered, but I heard of the new rule. 
The morning I entered, the teacher met me kindly, gave me a 
seat, and arranged my lessons. Very quietly he said: "Joseph, 
we do not have any whispering." 



SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT. 185 

After about half an hour I forgot this fact, and asked my seat- 
mate something about recess. The teacher, in passing me, said, in 
alow, earnest tone, "Joseph, you must not whisper," and went 
right on with his work. I did not whisper for an hour, when 
I again thoughtlessly asked my seat-mate for his knife. Again, 
and still more earnestly, the injunction came, "Joseph, you must 
not whisper." 

I did not whisper again till afternoon, when I was so unfortu- 
nate as to ask about the spelling-lesson. The teacher came to me, 
and said : " Joseph, you may take your books and come with me. 
You may occupy this front seat by yourself. "When you feel that 
you can get along without whispering, I will let you return to 
your seat." 

For about a week I kept that lonely seat and thought. I then 
told the teacher that I could now get along without whispering. 
" Very well, you may take your former seat." I gave the teacher 
no further trouble. My recollection is that there was no whisper- 
ing in the school. 

The story of Joseph is instructive. The teacher had 
system, and was wide awake and firm. His management 
was vigorous and effective. By training, he converted 
precept and example into habit. Pupils who had always 
whispered were trained to the habit of non-communica- 
tion. " Where there's a will there's a way." 

5. Disorder oecause of Contagious Laughter. " Our high 
school included sixteen laughter-loving girls, who spent the re- 
cesses in telling each other the most amusing secrets, and who 
often interrupted the school by bursts of uncontrollable laughter. 
The usual remedies utterly failed, but the following expedient 
proved completely successful: I changed the programme so as to 
have a laughing exercise at the time when the girls were generally 
the worst. When the time came I sent these girls to the board, 
one by one. The school saw the reason and began to laugh. I 
explained that I had set apart ten minutes for a laughing exercise ; 
that whatever they did, I intended they should do in a systematic 



186 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

manner; and closed by calling on the most mischievous one to 
begin the recitation. I had so completely surprised the school as 
to produce the greatest sobriety, and the young ladies looked so 
ridiculous, that, at the close, the stillness was broken by one con- 
tinuous and prolonged uproar of laughter. Some of the young 
ladies laughed, others wept. I never called the class again, nor 
was I ever afterward troubled by laughing from those girls." 

- 6. Disorder occasioned by a Disorderly Teacher. " To correct 
such disorder, be orderly yourself ; this is the prime requisite. 
Any other means to secure order is unsatisfactory and unphilo- 
sophical. The teacher teaches more by example in all the details 
of school work than by virtue of authority. In every school the 
large majority of the pupils will soon imitate the teacher in his 
tone, language, and daily walk in the school-room. If the teacher 
is noisy in his manner, he will have noisy pupils, and as a result 
a noisy school. If he walks heavily, he must expect his pupils to 
do the same, for like begets like. If he whistles in the school- 
room during noon or recess, he must expect his pupils to do like- 
wise ; and he should not be surprised if his pupils try to outdo 
him in this particular, for it is but natural for them to attempt to 
excel. On the other hand, if the teacher's manner and walk in 
the school-room are quiet and self-possessed, and his voice at a 
medium pitch, soon the conduct of the pupils will be similar. The 
teacher's manner of doing everything will be truthfully copied by 
the band of pupils, who instinctively follow him from day to day. 
"Teachers, are any of you dissatisfied with your order? If so, 
I advise you to examine yourselves, find your defects, and set 
about a reformation, radical and thorough." 

VI. Govern Individuals through the Class. 

Instead of giving your attention to individual pupils and single 
misdeeds, trying to correct each in detail, endeavor to deal with 
faults in such a manner as to exert an influence upon the entire 
class, which will lead to right thoughts and better actions. Aim 
thus to develop the public opinion of your class in favor of the 
right, so that you may govern individual pupils through the influ- 
ence of your class. 



SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT. 187 

Suppose you have a class of young pupils, amoug whom are 
many careless or restless children, and you notice that they make 
a great deal of noise in taking slates from the desks, or in placing 
slates on the desks. Telling them to make less noise, or remind- 
ing John, Charles, and William that they are too noisy, or taking 
their slates away from them, will not secure habits of handling 
slates quietly. But if you tell the class that some of the boys are 
always quiet in handling their slates, and that it would be so 
pleasant if all the boys would try to be quiet, and then ask how 
many would like to try to put down and take up their slates 
quietly, the unanimous response would commit the class in favor 
of less noise. 

Do not attempt to govern your class by naming individual pu- 
pils and charging them with faults ; such a course, if often pur- 
sued, seldom secures the desired end. Instead of directly telling 
pupils of their faults and bad conduct, lead them to see their own 
misdeeds in their true light through the public opinion of the 
class. The following incident will illustrate this point: 

One day a boy gave the teacher of his school an insolent reply. 
All who heard it were greatly astonished, but the teacher did not 
exhibit anger by scolding or threatening the boy with punishment. 
He quickly determined to improve that opportunity by teaching a 
valuable lesson to the entire school. The very calmness of his 
manner made a deep impression on the school, and while the pu- 
pils wondered how the disrespectful boy would be punished, they 
felt certain that such conduct would not be allowed to pass un- 
noticed. The hour for closing came, and school was dismissed 
without any allusion to the conduct of the boy. After the cus- 
tomary opening exercises on the morning of the next day, the 
teacher addressed the school substantially as follows: 

" Boys, if, while you were at play in the street before school 
opened, a gentleman who was passing the school had inquired the 
direction to the railroad station, would you have told him the way 
in a respectful manner? " 

" Yes, sir," was the unanimous response. 

"Suppose a common laborer, whose occupation soiled his 
garments, had come along and asked the way to Street, 



188 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

would you have told him as well as you could, or would you have 
treated him rudely, telling him to go about his business ? " 

" "We would tell him the way," said the hoys. 

"Very good," said the teacher. "Now, suppose a man, very 
poorly clad, who was seeking work that he might earn a little 
food for his wife and children, or even one who was compelled to 
beg his daily food, should ask you a civil question, how would 
you treat him ? Would you give him a civil answer ? " 

" Yes, sir," responded the school. 

" That is right, boys." 

Tims the teacher prepared the school for the lesson he had 
planned to give. After a pause, looking carefully over the school, 
until all eyes were fixed upon him, even those of the boy who 
gave him a disrespectful answer the day before, he said, with a 
kind but sad tone of voice : 

" Yesterday afternoon I asked a question of one of the boys of 
this school. It was a proper question for me to ask a pupil ; it 
was a question which was justly entitled to a respectful reply. 
And yet, I am very sorry to know that even one boy in this school 
so far forgot that respect which is due to his parents, to his teach- 
er, and to his school-mates as to give his teacher a less civil reply 
than should have been given to a beggar in the street. I hope no 
boy in this school will ever again forget to be respectful." (Cal- 
kins.) 

VII. Management of Dull Pupils. 

Mrs. Dumont was the ideal of a teacher, because she succeeded 
in forming character. She gave her pupils unstinted praise, not 
hypocritically, but because she lovingly saw the best in every one. 
"We worked in the sunshine. A dull but industrious pupil was 
praised for diligence, a bright pupil for ability, a good one for 
general excellence. The dullards got more than their share, for, 
knowing how easily such a one is disheartened, Mrs. Dumont 
went out of her way to praise the first show of success in a slow 
■ scholar. She treated no two alike. She was full of all sorts of 
knack and tact, a person of infinite resource for calling out the 
human spirit. 



SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT, 189 

VIII. Management of Haed Cases. — The wise 
teacher so manages as not to have hard cases in his school. 
The materials of which such are made are transformed into 
good pupils. But, in all schools, cases frequently occur 
that try the teacher to the utmost. For their manage- 
ment no specific has been or ever will be discovered. 
Each case must be dealt with on its merits. Yet, cer- 
tainly, the management of similar cases by wise teachers 
must prove highly suggestive. 

1. Charlie. " Charlie was an inveterate joker. His quaint 
answers and questions produced no little merriment at my ex- 
pense. I reproved him privately and publicly without effect. I 
resolved to turn the joke. ' Charlie, you may take off your coat. 
Hang it on the chair. Take this rod. Now, whip the coat.' 
Charlie was much surprised, and went to work with a right good 
will. I did not restrain the mirthfulness of the school. Soon 
Charlie broke down and burst into tears. He felt that he was 
beaten at his own game. After that he gave me very little 
trouble." 

2. George. " George was told that he would not be allowed 
to leave the school-room until he had spelled the word correctly. 
A fiendish look, which the teacher was not slow to comprehend, 
arose upon his face, as he said to a companion, 'I'll keep her here 
all night ! ' A night in a country school-house with a vicious boy 
was not an agreeable subject for contemplation, and the folly of 
making such a rash threat was apparent. The teacher therefore 
put her wits to work to gain by strategy what she knew could 
never be obtained by force. Recess passed with the boy in his 
seat. Just before closing, the teacher proposed that all should 
choose sides. The sides were chosen, and, in the excitement of 
spelling down, our contumacious boy fell into the trap set for him 
by his wily instructor. "Watching for a moment of preoccupation 
on his part, she gave him the word fawn. ' F-a-w-n,' spelled he, 
in a distinct voice. The laugh that went round the class convinced 
him that his hour of triumph was over." 



190 SCIIOOL GOVERNMENT. 

3. Brice. " I was fairly puzzled. I had tried moral suasion, I 
had tried punishment, hut the hoy seemed incorrigible. He had 
been taken from a lawless private school and sent to me. His 
last teacher had expressed himself as glad to he rid of him, and 
he had evidently entered my school with the determination of 
having ' a good time,' which meant, in his opinion, getting many 
boys into mischief, and annoying me as much as possible. The 
boy was gentlemanly-looking, bright, and apt ; but ' obedience ' 
and ' order ' seemed to be terms which he habitually and system- 
atically set at defiance. The weak teacher's refuge, suspension, 
was possible; but the remembrance of former victories, and the 
heartfelt desire to train this smart boy into a good and useful man, 
made me shrink more than usually from such an alternative. I 
walked away from the school in some perturbation. What course 
had I best pursue? The happy thought struck me, 'Place confi- 
dence in him, put him to work for others ; perhaps he will en- 
deavor to deserve this trust.' I caught at the idea, and that 
afternoon, having called my fourth grade to the blackboard, I said, 
' Brice, I have been some time trying to teach this grade how to 
do long division. Sometimes children catch such things quicker 
from an older child than from a teacher. You are quite apt at 
arithmetic ; will you come up here and try what you can do for 
them ? ' The boy's face flushed, but he came up with alacrity, 
and I never saw more patient, thorough work done than he went 
through for the next half-hour. I had no more trouble with 
Brice that afternoon, nor have I had a great deal since. As soon 
as I see him becoming restless, I call on him to help me with some 
of the lower grades, after which he will always return to his own 
task with renewed diligence. This method, doubtless, is old to 
many of you ; but by some it may have been untried, and to such 
I submit it, hoping that they may meet with like success." 

4. " Alfred and Lena have arrived at that age at which youth- 
ful love begins to develop. They begin to think very much of 
each other. They begin to sit and stare into tbe distant future, 
and study the probabilities of the coming life. Fancy builds air- 
castles. They are continually smiling at each other. They sit 
together at rests, promenade together at noon, assist each other 



SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT. 191 

in the difficult problems ; notes pass between them ; he waits for 
her at tbe gate; they go from and come to school together; they 
are so engrossed in each other that they begin to fail in their 
classes. However beautiful this boy and girl love, it is a serious 
evil in school life, and must be cured. I felt that something 
must be done. After much reflection I pursued the following 
course : 

"I spoke to the school about a pair of baby lovers. I de- 
scribed their conduct in a ridiculous light. Without mentioning 
the names, pupils knew to whom I referred. The cure was only 
partial. I kept them in at rest, and told them I wanted them to 
look at each other. I kept them after school, and told them I 
wanted them to walk home together. A few days' treatment, 
with the laughter of the school, effected a cure." (Thomas.) 

IX. Successful Management should be Eeported. 
— The general studies history from the standpoint of the 
soldier ; the lawyer ponders over trials and decisions ; the 
artist goes to Italy to study the works of the masters ; the 
educational artist sits at the feet of Socrates and Aris- 
totle, of Pestalozzi and Froebel, of Miss Willard and 
Anna 0. Brackett, and studies the art of school man- 
agement and the art of teaching as exhibited by the 
masters. Now that teaching and school management 
are recognized as arts, and the best talent is flowing 
into our noble profession, the demand for details of prac- 
tice is imperative. Works now published giving the 
practice of Pestalozzi, of Froebel, etc., however valuable, 
are too meager to meet the wants of teachers. Another 
decade ought greatly to enrich this department of our 
professional literature, and give us many volumes filled 
with the details of skillful and successful school manage- 
ment. 



192 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

CONDITIONS OF OEDER — SCHOOL DUTIES AND RIGHTS. 

Order, as applied to a school, means fitness of con- 
dition in all the parties comprehended in the idea of a 
school. The parties in this idea are as follows : 1. The 
district as a body politic ; 2. The parents and guardians ; 
3. The children ; 4. The teacher. 

The school is in order when, and only when, all these 
parties are in order. These parties are in order when 
they are in the condition most favorable for the upbuild- 
ing and advancement of the school. 

Conditions of Order. (Kenedy.) 

I. For the District. — The district is in order — 

1. When it provides for the necessary expenses of the 
school ; 

2. When it is willing to contribute freely to the wants 
of the school ; 

3. When it possesses a decorous and law-abiding public 
sentiment. 

II. For the Parents. — The parents are in order — 

1. When they appreciate the value of education to 
the child ; 

2. When they are wise in the daily management of 
their children's time, with a view to school duties and 
relations ; 

3. When they are properly affected toward the school, 
and thereby sustain its management. 

III. For the Children. — The children are in order — 

1. When they are happy ; 

2. When they respect the teacher and his office ; 



ORDER— SCHOOL DUTIES AND RIGHTS. 193 

3. When they feel interested in the school, and have 
pride in its success. 

IV. For the Teacher. — The teacher is in order — 

1. When he is thoroughly master of himself ; 

2. When he possesses the clearest mastery of the sub- 
jects he is presumed to teach ; 

3. When he comprehends correctly the relations sur- 
rounding and centering in him. 

School Duties. 

I. Duties of Teachers to Themselves.* 

1. To use every effort to improve in the science and art of 
teaching, and in the art of school management. 

2. To exercise a watchful care over every act and word, teach- 
ing by example as well as by precept. 

3. To attend teachers' meetings and educational associations. 

4. To spare no pains to preserve your health. 

5. To pursue some branch of study outside of your profes- 
sional work. 

6. To read educational books and journals. 

II. Duties of Teaohees to Each Other. 

1. To aid and encourage fellow teachers by a friendly appre- 
ciation and recognition of their work. 

2. To give other teachers the benefit of methods you consider 
good. 

3. To extend every courtesy and render every assistance to 
teachers just entering upon duty. 

4. To sustain your fellow teachers in the discharge of duty. 

III. Duties of Teaohees to School Property. 

1. To make the school-room a pleasant and attractive place 
for children. 

2. To ornament the school-room, when practicable, with pic- 
tures, drawings, etc. 

* Superintendent Duane Doty, of Chicago, is the compiler of most of these excel- 
lent hints and suggestions concerning the duties of teachers and pupils. Some 
changes have been made to adapt these hints to the wants of ungraded schools, and 
some omissions and additions occur. 

9 



194 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

3. To take good care of all books, maps, charts, blanks, and 
other school property intrusted to you. 

4. To inspect daily the stoves, furniture, and other school 
property, reporting any damage at once to the school-board. 

5. To take every precaution to guard against danger from fire. 

6. To leave everything in a satisfactory shape at the close of 
the school. 

7. To improve the school-grounds. 

IV* Duties of Teachers to Parents. 

1. To avoid wounding the feelings of any parent by word or 
manner. 

2. To endeavor to secure the confidence and cooperation of 
parents in your efforts to benefit their children. 

3. To know that a dispassionate conversation with a parent 
will almost always convince him that you are pursuing a correct 
course with his child. 

4. To keep parents fully informed of the doings and progress 
of their children. 

V. Duties of Teaoheks to Pupils. 

1. To know that a pupil's true education is a growth conse- 
quent upon the proper exercise of all his faculties. 

2. To know that growth and discipline come through the 
acquisition of useful knowledge. 

3. To know that neglect, mistakes, blunders, or carelessness 
on your part are disastrous to pupils and most difficult to remedy. 

4. To remember that children are children, and need assist- 
ance in many ways, but that the most valuable work for a pupil, 
under wise guidance, is the work which he does for himself. 

5. To be ever thoughtful of the future of your pupils, and to 
make all school work and discipline such as will be of lasting ser- 
vice to them. 

6. To remember that what a pupil grows to he is of more im- 
portance than what he lives to know. 

7. To make yourself acquainted with the home influences af- 
fecting your pupils. 

8. To talk to your pupils in a natural tone of voice. 

9. To commend your pupils for all earnest work and effort. 



ORDER— SCHOOL DUTIES AND RIGHTS. 195 

10. To teach your pupils how to study. 

11. To teach the reasons for, and the value of, good school 
order. 

12. To train your pupils to the habit of obeying the laws of 
health. 

13. To train your pupils to do right because it is right. 

14. To encourage a cheerful spirit in all school work. 

15. To require nothing of a pupil that there is a doubt of his 
ability to do. 

16. To notice faults in manner, conduct, and language, and 
kindly correct them. 

17. To understand thoroughly any complaint against a pupil 
before acting upon it. 

18. To make no mention of former faults or irregularities that 
have been settled. 

19. To be just and impartial in all your dealings with pupils. 

20. To keep your school-room at the proper temperature and 
well ventilated. 

VI. Duties op Teachees to the School. 

1. To be at your post in time. 

2. To be systematic and methodical in all your work. 

3. To be cheerful and enthusiastic in your work. 

4. To keep your classes supplied with proper work. 

5. To give your undivided attention to school duties, never 
sewing, knitting, working on school records, reading books, or 
writing letters during school sessions. 

6. To have a carefully prepared programme for your daily ex- 
ercises, and to follow it closely. 

7. To work your classes upon the prescribed course of study. 

8. To talk little and in a natural tone of voice, but to do much 
in school. 

9. To read educational literature. 

10. To know that the best school-teaching is always associated 
with the best school government. 

11. To know that good school government exists only where 
each pupil attends quietly and faithfully to his own business at his 
own desk, which is his place of business. 



196 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

12. To rely upon your own tact, skill, energy, and devotion to 
your school work. 

13. To feel an honest pride in your school, and a determina- 
tion that its work and progress shall give it high rank among 
schools. 

14. To speak the English language in its purity. 

15. To guard against the loss of time and waste of effort from 
the following causes : 

(1.) Stopping work to attend to individual cases of discipline ; 

(2.) Waiting for dilatory pupils ; 

(3.) Lecturing or talking upon matters of little importance ; 

(4.) Fussy and indirect ways of getting to work ; 

(5.) Slow and noisy movements of pupils ahout the room ; 

(6.) Inadequate preparation for the recitation ; 

(7.) Writing letters or working during session hours; 

(8.) Permitting irrelevant questions hy pupils ; 

(9.) Allowing pointless corrections hy pupils; 

(10.) Wandering from the subject matter of recitations ; 

(11.) Speaking too slowly ; 

(12.) Speaking in such tones as to disturb and distract pnpils 
at their work ; 

(13.) Putting work upon slates, paper, or blackboards too 
slowly ; 

(14.) Having no definite order of procedure in a recitation ; 

(15.) Tolerating habits of slowness and laziness in some pupils ; 

(16.) Dwelling upon what pupils already know; 

(17.) Eepetition of answers or parts of answers ; 

(18.) Inattention, requiring repetition of questions ; 

(19.) Failure by some pupils to understand each step in a 
recitation ; 

(20.) Having no well-defined next upon which to direct effort. 

I. Duties of Pupils to Themselves. 

1. To remember that promptness, energy, patient industry, 
enthusiasm, and earnestness are the surest reliance for success in 
student life as well as in business life. 

2. To remember that there is a time and a place for work, for 



ORDER— SCHOOL DUTIES AND RIGHTS. 197 

play, for study, and for rest, and that the school-room is the place 
for study. 

3. To feel the importance and understand the great value of 
time, and to learn how to improve it. 

4. To be always neat and tidy in dress and person. 

5. To cultivate a cheerful disposition. 

6. To he kind and polite to all. 

7. To cultivate that self-reliance which always commands re- 
spect. 

8. To do the very best you can in every work and exercise. 

9. To obey the laws for securing and preserving perfect physi- 
cal health. 

10. To be truthful and use good language on all occasions. 

11. Duties of Pupils to Schoolmates. 

1. To be kind and courteous to all. 

2. To be guilty of no rudeness to others. 

3. To speak no ill of others. 

4. To say nothing of others that you would not freely say in 
their presence. 

5. To avoid tale-bearing. 

6. To avoid wasting the time of schoolmates by whispering, 
writing or passing notes, or diverting their attention with nods 
and signs. 

7. To exhibit a helpful spirit in all your relationships. 

8. To protect the weak and unfortunate. 

9. To exercise a watchful care over little ones going to and 
from school. 

III. Duties of Pupils to Teachers. 

1. To be dutiful, polite, and respectful to teachers. 

2. To render proper explanation for absence and tardiness. 

3. To obey promptly and cheerfully all the signals given by 
teachers. 

4. To cooperate with them in their efforts in your behalf. 

5. To assist them in carrying into effect any plans for the good 
of the school. 

6. To do all in your power to help the teacher to sustain good 
order. 



198 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

IV. Duties of Pupils to the School. 

1. To be prompt and regular in attendance at school. 

2. To observe and obey the regulations of the school. 

3. To attend cheerfully to every duty. 

4. To remember that the school is kept for your benefit. 

5. To do your full part in making your school the best possible. 

V. Duties of Pupils to Peopeett. 

1. Never to cut, mar, mark, or injure desks, walls, fences, or 
any school property whatever. 

2. To use and guard public property as carefully as if it be- 
longed to your parents. 

3. To return every article to its place after using it. 

4. To keep your books and slates covered, and learn how to 
use them properly. 

5. To keep your desk and its contents in good order. 

6. To keep the floor about your desk neat and clean. 

7. To be careful in the use of ink, and not stain desks or books. 

8. To see that your shoes are clean before going into school. 

VI. Duties of Pupils in the School-House. 

1. To attend quietly and faithfully to your own business at 
your own desk. 

2. To attend promptly to every school requirement. 

3. To move quietly but quickly about the school-room and 
halls. 

4. To recite lessons in a full, natural tone of voice, pronouncing 
every word distinctly. 

5. To do all manual work upon slates, paper, or blackboards 
with the greatest rapidity consistent with neatness and accuracy. 

6. To avoid disturbing the school by such unnecessary annoy- 
ances as — 

(1.) Dropping slates and pencils; 
(2.) Noisily taking articles from desks ; 
(3.) Noisily using pencils upon slates and desks; 
(4.) Noisily handling paper and turning leaves; 
(5.) Moving the feet upon the floor; 

(6.) Striking the desk- frames with the feet when changing 
position ; 



ORDER— SCHOOL DUTIES AND RIGHTS. 199 

(7.) Attempting to sharpen pencils on desks; 
(8.) Using the lips while studying ; 
(9.) Carelessly opening and closing doors; 
(10.) Unnecessarily calling the teacher's attention to trifles ; 
(11.) Interrupting the teacher when hearing a recitation ; 
(12.) Bringing to desks articles not needed in school; 
(13.) Forgetting to hring your books to school; 
(14.) Forgetting where the lesson is; 
(15.) Inattention to the instruction ; 

(16.) The habit of not understanding a question without repe- 
tition ; 

(17.) Answering questions before called upon to do so. 
VI. Duties of Pupils outside the School-House. 

1. To go to and from school in such a manner as not to disturb 
any one. 

2. To go directly home at the close of school. 

3. To come to school at the proper hour, and not earlier. 

4. To make no unnecessary noise in the neighborhood of the 
school-house. 

5. To obey at once the signal for entering the school-house. 

I. Duties of Parents to their Children. 

1. To provide the best educational facilities. 

2. To encourage regularity and promptitude. 

3. To encourage studious habits. 

4. To aid by sympathy and counsel. 

II. Duties of Parents to Teachers. 

1. To sustain teachers. 

2. To impress upon their children the duty of respect- 
ful and cheerful obedience. 

3. To visit the school and encourage the teacher. 

4. To discourage fault-finding. 

5. To cooperate with the teachers in cases of discipline. 

III. Duties of Parents to School-Boards. 

1. To select the best citizens as members of the school- 
board. 



200 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

2. To urge the employment of the best teachers. 

3. To sustain the school-board. 

Duties of School-Boaeds. 

1. To provide good grounds and buildings. 

2. To provide suitable apparatus. 

3. To select the best available teachers. 

4. To sustain the teachers. 

5. To avoid the selection of relatives or personal favor- 
ites for teachers. 

6. To give no encouragement to factious complaints. 

School Eights. 

I. Eights of Teachers. — Teachers have rights ; to 
insist on these is noble. A truckling, cowardly syco- 
phant is not fit to be a teacher. 

1. The teacher has the absolute control of the internal 
workings of the school. He is responsible for results, and 
hence must be left untrammeled to reach results in his 
own way. 

2. The teacher has the absolute right to classify, teach, 
and govern the school. Parents and school-boards may 
suggest and advise, but not dictate. The competent 
teacher knows best ; the incompetent teacher should be 
speedily removed. 

3. The teacher has a right to the respect and confi- 
dence of the parents. 

4. The teacher has a right to a joint control with 
parents of pupils while going to and from school ; also, to 
punish for conduct out of school which tends to injure 
the school and subvert the authority of the teacher. 

II. Eights of Pupils. 

1. To the treatment due to rational beings. 

2. To sympathy and encouragement. 



ORDER— SCHOOL DUTIES AND RIGHTS. 201 

3. To thorough and appropriate instruction. 

4. But, towering above all the specific rights of child- 
hood, and embracing them all in its wide significance, is 
the grand right to maturity — the right to the complete 
unfolding of its powers — the right to attain its end ; the 
right to be a man ; the right to read the Creative Mind 
spread abroad upon his works ; the righb to the infinite 
pleasures that wait upon mature susceptibilities ; the right 
to scatter happiness here ; the right to retire in peace from 
a well-employed mortality ! 

III. Eights op Pakents. 

1. To thoroughly qualified teachers — those who know 
methods as well as subjects, mind as well as matter. 

2. To faithful and devoted teachers. Parents intrust 
the teacher with their most precious treasures. The 
teacher owes it to parents to do as well for the children 
as if they were his own. 

3. To kind and loving teachers. Loving parents claim 
the right to commit their precious darlings to sympathetic 
teachers ; teachers from whose hearts issue treasures of 
love and encouragement ; teachers who will take the place 
of the parents. 

IV. Eights of School-Boards. 

1. To manage the finances. 

2. To employ and dismiss teachers. 

3. To approve the general regulations. 

4. To expel disorderly pupils. 

5. To sustain worthy teachers. 

Suggestions. — The youthful teacher will read this chapter 
many times. The pupils can he quietly taught their duties by 
giving one or two items at a time. School duties and rights fur- 
nish valuable topics for essays and lessons in normal schools and 
normal institutes. 



PART IV, 



C0UR8E8 OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 



CHAPTER I.— The Circle of Science. 

II. — General Course of Study from the Primary 

School to the University. 
III. — Course of Study for Elementary Schools. 
IV. — Practical Suggestions — Use of Course of 
Study in Ungraded and Small Graded 
Schools. 
V. — The Programme in Ungraded Schools. 
VI. — Course of Study and Position of the High 
School. 



PART FOURTH. 

COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE CIRCLE OF SCIEHCE. 

I. The Mental Unit. — The sciences constitute one 
grand hierarchy, each science shading into the others. 
Mind is the universal unitizing force, the central unit in 
the circle of science. The universe was constructed from 
the standpoint of mind, and can he understood only from 
the mental standpoint. Each one's world is what he 
knows ; to the individual, as to the race, the circle is 
ever widening. 

II. Matter and Spirit. — In all the universe we 
recognize hut two substances — matter and spirit. Sub- 
stance is that of which we affirm attributes, the entity 
which is the basis of phenomena. Passivity, extension, 
impenetrability, indestructibility, and the quality of oc- 
casioning specific sensations are the essential properties of 
matter ; spontaneity, and the power to know, to feel, and 
to will, are the essential characteristics of mind. Matter 
and spirit, the bases of all the sciences, like all first truths, 
are indefinable. 

With reference to substance, all the sciences are divided 
into two groups : 



206 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

1. The World of Matter embraces all the branches 
which treat of the material universe. Space and duration 
are conditions, and not material entities. The physical 
forces are the inherent properties of matter ; and the laws 
of nature are the modes in which these forces act. 

2. The World of Spirit includes all branches treating 
of finite spirit or man, and the Infinite Spirit or God. 
We feel an absorbing interest in the world of matter, for 
in all its parts we discern the plans of the Infinite Mind ; 
but the world of spirit has for us a boundless fascination, 
for here we discern our inmost selves. We can neither de- 
fine spirit nor prove its existence. When the soul acts, 
the intuition of conscious self is inevitable. When the 
idea of a supreme intelligence is once suggested, and we 
look around us and within us, the intuition — God — the 
something above nature — seems to be equally inevitable. 
It is no more necessary to prove the existence of the human 
soul or of God than to prove an axiom. 

III. The Lstorganic World. — Here are classed all 
sciences which treat of matter as related to space and 
duration, and as affected by the physical forces. 

1. Mathematics. Under this head are classed all 
branches treating of matter in its relations to space 
and duration. In mathematics, matter is considered as 
quantitative. Mathematics enables us to convert figured 
extension and rated motion into numbers ; hence, spec- 
ulative or 

(1.) Pure Mathematics, which includes mathesis, the 
science which creates functions, and calculus, the science 
which computes functions. 

a. Mathesis embraces geometry, the science of figure, 
and mechanics, the science of force. 

b. Calculus embraces arithmetic, the science of the 



THE CIRCLE OF SCIENCE. 207 

valuation of functions, and algebra, the science of the 
transformation of functions. 

Mathematical principles are applied to the phenome- 
nal world ; hence, practical or 

(2.) Applied Mathematics, which includes survey- 
ing, navigation, physico-mathematics, and mathematical 
astronomy. 

2. Physics includes the branches which treat of 
matter as affected by physical forces, giving us natural 
philosophy and chemistry. 

(1.) Natural Philosophy, now commonly called phys- 
ics, treats of matter as related to the molecular and molar 
forces. Physics proper treats of aggregation and the 
aggregating forces. 

(2.) Chemistry treats of matter as affected by chemism 
— treats of the composition and decomposition of bodies. 

IV. The Organic World. — Here are classed all 
branches which treat of matter as organized. 

Cosmic forces give us cosmic organisms ; hence, 

1. Cosmology, the Science of Worlds, including 
geotics and astronomy. Geotics is the science of the 
earth, and includes the branches which treat of the earth 
as an organism. Geology unfolds the plan of God in 
evolving the earth and its inhabitants. Geography treats 
of the earth as an organism and as the home of man. 
Astronomy is the science of the universe considered as an 
organism. 

Vital forces give us living organisms ; hence, 

2. Biology, the Science of Living Organism. Bot- 
any, the science of vegetable organism, and Zoology, 
the science of animal organism, are classed under this 
head. Biology also discusses the formation of organisms 
under the influence of the life-forces. Life is the coordi- 



208 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

nating force inherent in germ-matter. All life comes 
from antecedent life. The Creator is the Author of life, 
as he is of law and substance. His plan in evolving the 
myriad forms of living organisms remains to he discov- 
ered. The theories of scientists fail to account for the 
facts. Indeed, after sixty centuries of effort, man has 
obtained but a glimpse of the divine plan. Achievements 
of transcendent splendor await well-directed effort. 

Y. The World of Man. — All sciences and arts which 
have reference to man the thinker, or to man the actor, 
or to man the emotional being, are placed in this group. 
The soul is embodied spirit ; the body is the organism 
through which it acts. The soul is propagated with the 
body, dwells in it, operates through it, suffers with it, and 
abandons it in death. Mind, soul, and spirit, in the 
language of the masses, are synonyms, and are so used 
in this work. Each is used to designate the entity that 
knows, feels, and wills ; the ego, the "conscious self," the 
self -determining and self-acting person — the man. 

Man is a rational being ; man is a science-maker ; man 
thinks and expresses thought ; hence, 

1. The Thought World. Here we class those 
branches which treat of man the thinker, man the theo- 
rizer, man the language-user. 

(1.) Man the Thinker. The three master sciences 
form this group : 

Psychology — the science of the soul ; 

Logic — the science of correct thinking ; 

Philosophy — the science of principles. 

(2.) Man the Language-user. Language is the sci- 
ence and art of expression. Languages are grouped as 
living or dead, as ancient or modern, as inflected or non- 
inflected. The philosophy of language includes the 



THE CIRCLE OF SCIENCE. 209 

branches which treat of language as a science and an art 
— etymology, grammar, rhetoric, criticism, and philol- 
ogy. Philology investigates the historical development of 
speech, the laws of language, and the relations of different 
tongues. 

The soul responds to the objective and subjective 
universes ; hence, 

2. The Emotion World. "VVe have power to ap- 
preciate as well as create the beautiful ; hence, 

(1.) The Beauty World, or the JEsthetical Man. We 
place in this group sciences and arts having beauty as 
the leading element : aesthetics (the science of beauty), 
poetry, imaginative literature, rhetoric, elocution, music, 
drawing, etc. 

Man, in his inmost soul, feels the intuitive imperative 
" I ought" ; hence, 

(2.) The Duty World, or the Ethical Man. Here are 
classed the branches treating of man's duties growing out 
of his various relations. The moral universe is as real as 
the physical. Conscience, the central power of the soul, 
impels to right, and is the great governing force. Of all 
the departments of knowledge, Ethics, the science of duty, 
is first in importance. Duty is the willing obedience to 
law. Happiness, the highest good, is the result of such 
obedience. 

(3. ) The Humor World, or the Mirthful Man. Wit, the 
capacity to feel in view of the ludicrous, is the safety- 
valve of the soul. While enriching all departments, hu- 
mor can not be represented in the circle of science. 

(4.) The Unexplored Regions. Vast realms in the 
domain of emotion remain to be explored by science. 

Man chooses and acts ; hence, 

3. The A ction World, or the Practical Man. All 



210 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

the branches which consider man as an actor, as a history- 
maker, are classed under this head. 

(1.) History is the Science of Human Achievement. 
As to time, history is ancient, medieval, or modern ; as 
to matter, it is special or general, biographical or na- 
tional ; as to method, it is descriptive or philosophical. 

(2. ) Sociology is the Science of Enlightened and Pro- 
gressive Society. It includes government, law, economics, 
and sociology proper. Economics embraces political econ- 
omy, professions, arts, and all the varied occupations of 
the race. 

VI. The Would of God. — Man knows, feels, and 
acts finitely ; but God is omniscient, all-loving, and 
omnipotent. That the Infinite Being possesses attributes 
of which we are not conscious, that his attributes are in- 
finite in number as in degree, we can not doubt. Each 
one's concept of God will for ever enlarge, for ever ap- 
proach the infinite. The chief study of mankind is God. 
Here are classed all branches which treat of God and of 
man's relations to God. 

1. Religion — bringing Man bach to God — includes 
all forms of worship. Paganism includes all forms of 
idolatry. Mohammedanism has for its central idea, 
"There is one God, and Mohammed is his prophet." 
Mormonism and Mohammedanism are mixed religions. 

Revealed Religion is the religion of the Bible. Ke- 
ligion is a life, not a theory. God has spoken to man, 
and the Bible is his word. The fatherhood of God and 
the brotherhood of man are the central ideas. The pa- 
triarchal dispensation extended from Adam to Moses ; 
the Judaic dispensation, from Moses to Christ ; the Chris- 
tian dispensation extends from Christ to the end, "which 
no man knoweth." 



THE CIRCLE OF SCIENCE. 211 

God is not a theory, but men have formed many theories 
concerning God. Eeligion is not a theory, but men have 
constructed many theories concerning religion. Hence, 

2. Theology, the Philosophy of Religion. 

(1.) Philosophic or Speculative Tlieology includes the 
various theories and speculations concerning God and 
man's relations to God : 

Atheism — no God ; nothing above nature. 

Pantheism — no personal God ; the universe and God 
are identical. 

Polytheism — many gods. 

Monotheism — one divine nature. 

Natural theology — God in nature. 

(2.) Dogmatic Theology includes all forms of authori- 
tative religious teaching. And is either pagan or Bibli- 
cal. Biblical includes Judaic and Christian. Dogmatic 
Christian theology embraces human creeds (written or 
unwritten), liturgies, religious forms and ceremonies, 
theological polemics, and church polity — congregational, 
presbyterian, and episcopal. 

(3.) Christian Theology. Theodical — vindication of 
God ; historical — the origin, development, and achieve- 
ments of Christianity ; exegetical or hermeneutical — 
science of Biblical interpretation ; practical — Christianity 
in every-day life ; experimental — effects of Christianity 
on the lives of people. The great departments of Christian 
theology are exegetical, systematic, historical, and pas- 
toral. . 

The Circle of Science — Remarks. 

1. Truth is Accurate, Complete, and Harmonious Knowledge. 
To know all about one thing, it is necessary to know something 
about everything. Absolute truth, therefore, is only possible 
to infinite intelligence ; but, so far as our knowledge is accu- 



212 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

rate, harmonious, and complete, to that extent we have reached 
truth. 

2. Classification is Susceptible of Unlimited Extension. The 
telescopic view here given may be extended in every direction 
into microscopic regions. Every thinker needs to become fa- 
miliar with a telescopic outline of classified knowledge, that he 
may be able to determine the latitude and longitude and the re- 
lations of the various branches. The microscopic is the world of 
specialists. Every student should explore at least one micro- 
scopic field. 

3. After each Disputed Point imagine a large Interrogation 
Point. Investigate for yourself. Form your own conclusions. 
Brevity necessitates positive statements, but the author disclaims 
any wish to dogmatize. 

4. Other Schemes have been laid under Tribute. The form 
and, to some extent, the classification here presented are believed 
to be original. This is one of few cases in which the circle is 
thought to be a desirable form for presenting outlines. The 
Circle of Science is exceedingly suggestive. The schemes of Hegel, 
Oomte, Spencer, Hill, Harris, "Wickersham, Long, and others have 
been carefully examined and freely used. The various schemes 
have been constructed from various standpoints. That of Dr. 
"W. T. Harris, constructed from the educational standpoint, is con- 
sidered the best for our purposes, and has been largely used in the 
Circle of Science and in the General Course of Study. 

5. The Object of the Outline is to Peach, if possible, a Philo- 
sophic Basis for Courses of Study. Reader, be not discouraged ; 
this problem has puzzled the greatest thinkers. Patient toil will 
give you a fair degree of mastery. You will be a philosopher 
when you are able to find the trunk and trace out the branches of 
the tree of knowledge. You will be a cosmist when you are able 
to stand at the center and see with the mind's eye the circle of 
science. 




CIRCLE nc qp.\ENCE.' 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 213 

CHAPTER II. 

GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY FROM THE PRIMARY 
SCHOOL TO THE UNIVERSITY. 

The thought and experience of all ages should have 
weight in the construction of courses of study. We seek 
the best means to develop man's entire nature, and render 
each individual of the highest value to the race and to 
himself. That we may proceed safely, let us examine 
some of the — 

I. Principles pertaining to Courses of Study. 

1. Psychological Principles determine Courses of 
Study. In order to construct courses of study adapted 
to mental development, we must know the plan of the 
mind, and must understand the laws, means, and methods 
of culture. It is self-evident that courses of study must 
conform to the facts of mind as developed in mental and 
moral science. 

2. Educational Symmetry requires that Courses of 
Study he so arranged as to foster the Full and Harmoni- 
ous Development of the Body, the Intellect, the Emotions, 
and the Will. Though the correctness of this princi- 
ple is unquestioned, it is notoriously violated in existing 
courses of study. From the primary school to the uni- 
versity this principle, embodied in practice, would work 
marvelous changes. 

3. Educational Adjustment requires that Schools and 
Courses of Study be adapted to the Age and Development 
of the Pupils. Than this, no feature in courses of study 
is more vital. Because of its gross violations, waste labor 
in education is the rule. Adaptation is the golden law 
of culture and the perfection of system. 



214 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY 



Circle 
of 

Science. 


Lower Education. 


Elementary Schools. 
6 to 14—8 Yeaks. 


High Schools. 
14 to 18 — 4 Years. 


Inor- 
ganic 
"World. 


Arithmetic 

Geometry. 

Physics. 


Algebra. 

Geometry. 

Plane Trigonometry. 

Elementary Chemistry. 

Elementary Physics. 


Organic 
World. 


Geography. 
Objective Botany. 
Objective Zoology. 
Objective Astronomy. 
Objective Physiology. 


Physical Geography. 
Physiology. 
Elementary Botany. 
Elementary Zoology. 
Descriptive Astronomy. 


Thought 
World. 


Language Lessons. 
Composition and Gram- 
mar. 
Reading. 
Etymology. 


English Grammar and 

Composition. 
Rhetoric. 
Latin. 
Elementary Psychology. 


Beauty 
World. 


Penmanship. 
Drawing. 
Vocal Music. 
Juvenile Literature. 


Penmanship. 
Drawing. 
Vocal Music. 
English Literature. 
Art Criticism. 


Duty 
World. 


Manners. 
Morals. 


Manners. 
Morals. 
Elementary Ethics. 


Action 
World. 


Oral Biography. 
Oral History. 
American History. 
Civil Government. 
Oral Political Economy. 


English History. 
French History. 
General History. 
Civil Government. 
Ele. Political Economy. 



FROM THE PRIMARY SCHOOL TO TEE UNIVERSITY. 215 



Higher Education. 



Colleges. 
18 to 22 — i Years. 



Universities. 
22 to 25—3 Years. 



Spherical Trigonometry. 

General Geometry. 

Calculus. 

Physics. 

Chemistry. 

Mathematical Astronomy. 

Elective Studies. 



Botany. 

Zoology. 

Geology. 

Anatomy and Physiology. 

Elective Studies. 



Latin or Greek. 

French or German. 

Psychology. 

Logic. 

History of Philosophy. 

Philosophies. 

Elective Studies. 



History of Art. 
Art Criticism. 
History of Literature. 
Science of Rhetoric. 
Oratory. 
Elective Studies. 



Ethics. 

Natural Theology. 
Philosophy of Religion. 
Evidences of Christianity. 
Elective Studies. 



Political Economy. 
Constitution and History. 
Constitutional Law. 
Sociology. 
Elective Studies. 



Theological School. 
Normal School. 
Law School. 
Medical School. 



School of Engineering. 
School of Mining. 
School of Chemistry. 
School of Agriculture. 



School of Journalism. 
School of Authorship. 
School of Scientific Research. 
School of Philosophy. 



School of Sculpture. 
School of Painting. 
School of Music. 
School of Oratory. 



Special Lines of Advanced Work. 



21G COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

4. All of Science is needed to Develop All of Man. 
Huxley declares that whatever is taught in the university 
should be taught in the primary school, and all thought- 
ful educators approve the statement. The course in the 
elementary school covers the entire circle of science. This 
widens in the high school, and becomes broader and deeper 
in the college. That the daily work in every grade should 
be made to touch the entire circle is a cardinal principle 
of human culture. 

5. Thorough Culture is the best Preparation for Prac- 
tical Life. Culture increases mental power and gives a 
man command of himself. The cultured surpass the un- 
cultured in every field of activity. Culture is the most 
practical of all things. Courses of study must be so ar- 
ranged as to give broad, deep, and thorough culture. 

6. Knowledge which is most valuable in Practical Life 
is best for Culture. Such knowledge is intensely inter- 
esting ; hence it is the best means of securing attention 
and glad effort. Though not yet canonical, this prin- 
ciple is rapidly growing into recognition, and we hear 
less and less of "culture studies" and of "bread-and- 
butter studies." 

7. The general Course of Study in Elementary and 
High Schools needs to be substantially the same for All. 
In the college, a wide range for optional and equivalent 
studies must be allowed. Below the college, all pupils, 
candidates for college as well as for practical life, need 
to pursue about the same studies. The minimum or 
maximum amount of knowledge required in a branch will 
depend upon the pupil's aptitude in that branch. Thus 
the course can be made flexible, and may be adapted to 
each pupil's capacity and tastes. 

8. The Studies of each Grade must be so arranged that 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 217 

each shall complement the Others. Mathematics, natural 
science, language, history, ethics, and aesthetics must he 
kept abreast. The phase of each branch studied in any 
grade must be the same. The work required in the 
several branches must be proportioned. Harmony of 
development, intensity of impression, and pleasurable 
advancement will thus be secured. Courses of study 
which violate this principle — as nearly all do — need to 
be readjusted. 

9. A General Knowledge of many Sciences and a 
Thorough Knowledge of a few Sciences is the True Doc- 
trine. Culture and utility alike demand the application 
of this principle in our educational work. Life is short. 
Every one needs 'a general knowledge of the various 
sciences, both to enable him to commune with the think- 
ers of all ages, and also to reach the highest results in his 
special field of work. Equally necessary is it that each 
one should master a few subjects ; this will develop 
strength, self-reliance, and originality. 

Carefully must we guard against extremes. The old course 
of study, limited to "the three K's — reading, riting, and rith- 
metic," represents the meager education of a rude civilization. 
The tendency of the new education is to overcrowd the course, 
not so much by the number of branches as by the amount of 
each required. This tendency needs to be carefully guarded 
against by every teacher. 

10. From the Primary School to the University, the 
Courses of Study should be adjusted and harmonized. The 
elementary school and the high school must make connec- 
tion, as must the high school and the college, and the 
college and the university. 

Thus will be secured system and efficiency, and a broad edu- 
cational highway will be opened to every child in the land. This 
10 



218 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

principle requires that all schools of the same grade, public anil 
private, shall have substantially the same course of study and tbo 
same standard of graduation. 

Cooperation is the key to achievement. Teachers should con- 
stitute the grandest brotherhood on earth, with harmony in all 
the ranks. The adoption of this principle will promote harmony 
and secure cooperators. 

The above principles are illustrated and applied else- 
where. Let ns intensify them by studying — 

II. The Psychological Basis of Courses of Study. 
The primary object of education is the fullest develop- 
ment of all the powers of the mind, and courses of study 
must be arranged with reference to this end. But man 
is a practical being ; he must provide for the necessi- 
ties and comforts of life, and must labor for the highest 
good of the race ; hence, courses of study need also to 
be made remarkably practical. The human constitution 
is such that, for the purposes of culture, the mind needs 
to be brought into daily contact with its entire surround- 
ings ; and man's adjustment to his environments is such 
that precisely the same course is the best possible for 
practical life. Psychological knowledge is the basis of 
educational science, and hence must determine courses of 
study. 

1. Childhood demands Activity and Contact with the 
Objective World. The business of children is to grow, to 
become familiar with their surroundings, to form right 
habits, and to master the objective phase of subjects. 
In the elementary school a solid foundation for future 
achievement is laid in actual experience. 

2. Youth demands Science from an Objective Stand- 
point. The youth needs to keep near to earth, and to 
continually build on experience, and to verify acquisition 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 219 

by the objective and the concrete. As children feast on 
the objective, so youth feast on scientific knowledge based 
on the objective. In the high school, our jouth acquire 
the elements of the sciences. 

3. Early Manhood demands Philosophy. Eeason now 
asserts its preeminence ; the mind grapples with cause 
and effect, means and ends, principles and systems. 
In the college, all subjects are investigated from the phi- 
losophical standpoint, and here the highest general cul- 
ture is reached. 

4. Manhood demands Wisdom and Action. Man is 
a producer : only animals and fools are content to bask. 
Man is a creator : each worthy person assumes respon- 
sibilities, and grows great in their faithful discharge. 
Man is a philanthropist : each noble nature labors to 
make the race wiser, better, happier. Man is a cosmist : 
the universe is his field of thought ; he seeks to under- 
stand something of nature, himself, and God. In special 
schools and in the varied fields of achievement, each 
person seeks to make the most of himself and to become 
of the greatest possible value to the race. The univer- 
sity furnishes the best facilities for preparation for the 
highest achievements. 

5. Thus, beginning with the lowest, each department 
grows into the next higher. The elementary school grows 
into the high school, and the high school grows into the 
college. Each occupies the entire circle ; but each con- 
siders that phase of the various branches adapted to the 
development of the learner. The child is content to 
know what it is, and the youth to know how it is ; but 
the man seeks to know why it is and whence it is. Thus, 
in the teachings of psychology we find a solid basis for 
courses of study. 



220 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

III. Relative Value of Different Studies. — 
All science knowledge is valuable ; but, relatively, some 
studies are more valuable than others. In selecting 
branches for courses of study, due weight must be given 
to the practical and culture value of each branch. 

A branch is valuable in proportion as it gives culture 
and information. Culture is primary, and is the most 
practical of all things ; but in the acquisition of useful 
knowledge and practical skill, the highest culture may at 
the same time be secured. Study merely for discipline 
is an educational mistake. Each department of knowl- 
edge has its own peculiar value, both as a means of 
culture and an instrument of mind. Culture and prac- 
tical utility are coordinate. 

1. Mathematics and Physics give the Basis of Courses 
of Study. Mathematics gives the mastery over mea- 
surement and number, and develops the power of con- 
centrated and exact thought. Without mathematical 
knowledge little progress can be made in the other de- 
partments of science ; but educators need to guard 
against the now too common error of giving undue prom- 
inence to this department. 

2. Natural Science gives a Mastery over the Organic 
World, and develops the powers of observation and classi- 
fication. The culture, though different, is as valuable 
as that derived from the study of mathematics. The 
knowledge obtained is of the highest importance. Until 
recently, the natural sciences were almost ignored in 
courses of study ; now we are in danger of going to the 
opposite extreme. 

3. Language gives a Mastery over Expression, and 
develops the power of analytic and synthetic thought. 
For practical utility, language deserves the first place in 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 221 

a course of study. Our own language is of paramount 
importance, both for utility and as a means of culture. 
While claiming for Latin and Greek, properly studied, 
great value, we can not deny that they have been assigned 
by far too much space in the curricula of the past. The 
time has come when college courses must be made large- 
ly elective. One dead and one modern language, in ad- 
dition to our own, are all that the average student can 
master without neglecting other departments of equal 
value. 

4. History and Sociology give a Mastery over the 
Movements of the Race, and develop breadth of thought, 
power of combination, and vigor of action. Civilized 
man is essentially a history-maker. History and soci- 
ology stimulate all his nobler impulses. The position 
and value of these studies are now unquestioned. Fa- 
miliarity with our own history, government, and laws, and 
with political economy, is simply a necessity. To under- 
stand our own, we must study the institutions and history 
of England, Germany, France, Greece, and Eome ; these 
great fountains of history, government, law, and litera- 
ture will of course be thoroughly studied by every 
student. 

5. JEsthetics gives a Mastery over the Beauty World, 
and develops the creative powers. The soul expresses 
itself in song, in poetry, in literature, in eloquence, in 
painting, in sculpture, and in architecture. Beauty as 
embodied in nature and art fills the soul with gladness, 
and inspires us for achievement. The cultivation of the 
sesthetic faculty is scarcely less important than that of 
reason. 

6. Ethics gives us a Mastery over the Science of Duty, 
and develops the powers of right acting. The science of 



222 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

duty is the most important of all the sciences, and de- 
serves a very prominent place in all courses of study. 
Duty is the highest as well as the most useful kind of 
knowledge. "It is the key to individual happiness and 
to the happiness of mankind." 

IV. The SonooL, the College, and the TJkiveesity.* — In 
education, as in all else, our age is one of transition from the old 
to the new. The old or traditional scheme of education took its 
rise in the great awakening of intellectual activity after the sleep 
of the Middle Ages,' when the treasures of thought, in art, litera- 
ture, philosophy, and science, of the ancient Greeks and Romans, 
were suddenly thrown open to the modern mind. 

Modern thought, once aroused, began to gather its own inde- 
pendent materials. Thus there has arisen a new and far more 
glorious revival of learning. But there has been no change in our 
schemes of education at all commensurate with the prodigious 
change in the materials of thought. The new science material is 
mostly taught by old class-room, text-book, memoriter methods. 
Is it any wonder that the result is wholly unsatisfactory? 

Education is confessedly a preparation /or active life. It has 
two ends, culture and iitility. The main aim of the former edu- 
cation is development; the main aim of the latter is direct prep- 
aration for special pursuits. These two are not antagonistic, 
but consecutive. If we compare education to an edifice, the one 
forms the basis, the other the superstructure of every perfect 
scheme ; if we compare it to a tree, the one forms the roots and 
the trunk, the other the fruit-bearing branches. 

All enduring work must oe in the image of Nature's work. 
There are two natural methods by which we acquire knowledge 
and power. External nature, streaming in through all our 
senses, produces changes in consciousness, whioh, being organ- 
ized, we call knowledge. Again, our fellow men continually act 

* Joseph Le Conte, in " Princeton Review." The presentation is so 
condensed and changed as to relieve Professor Le Conte of all responsi- 
bility for the matter as here given. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 223 

upon and determine changes in us through the medium of lan- 
guage ; while we, in turn, reacting through the same medium, ac- 
quire power over our fellow men. The one is nature-culture, 
the other language-culture. 

The order of culture must be the order of natural develop- 
ment. Childhood is the golden period, the flood-season of per- 
ception and memory ; youth is similarly the period of culmination 
of the imaginative and aesthetic faculties; while only later, in 
early manhood, begins to show itself the higher faculty of pro- . 
ductive thought. In childhood and youth, we deal mostly with 
facts, phenomena, and properties; in early manhood, with laws, 
principles, and causes. The one may be called natural history, 
or simple history ; the other is called science. The first belongs 
to the lower education, the second to the higher education. To 
illustrate : In biology, the forms, the habits, the structure, and the 
classification of animals and plants belong to natural history; 
while the laws of form and structure, as revealed by comparative 
anatomy, physiology, and embryology, and, more than all, the laws 
of evolution of these forms and their causes, are science. 

1. The School. — The elementary school and the high school 
are included. The general characteristic of this grade is that it 
cultivates mainly the memory, the perceptive faculties, the in- 
tuitive reason, the imagination, and the taste. These faculties 
must be the main object of culture in the schools, because they 
are the dominant faculties of childhood and youth. In brief, 
there are three coordinate courses in the school: (1) natural his- 
tory, or nature course ; (2) language course ; (3) lower mathe- 
matics. The greatest want of our present school systems is the 
fuller introduction and the proper teaching of natural history. It 
is difficult, almost impossible, to teach the higher departments of 
science with success in the college and university, unless natural 
history has been taught in the preparatory schools. The fact is, 
the natural history of all subjects belongs to the school, and 
should be largely mastered there; and then the mind is left 
free to take up the same subjects on the higher plane of science. 
Of all subjects, natural history is the least adapted to the old 
mode of teaching. Of all subjects, it is the most utterly profit- 



224 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

less if pursued by class-room text-book methods alone. Culture 
is evolution by voluntary methods. The higher grows out of the 
lower. The methods of the higher must be more or less antici- 
pated in the lower. 

2. The College. — The fundamental idea of the college, as I 
understand and would define it, is culture for culture 1 s sake. The 
college is still, and even much more than the school, a gymnasium 
in which we strive to exercise in the highest degree all the facul- 
ties and powers of the mind, so as to produce the greatest intel- 
lectual strength and symmetry. Its goal is a perfect intellectual 
manhood. The lower education gathers and organizes facts, but 
takes no thought of the bases of certainty and the grounds of be- 
lief; but the higher education, which deals with rational methods 
and a permanent structure of knowledge, can not neglect these. 

3. The University. — This is the crown of the educational life. 
We have seen the school and college occupied only with the gen- 
eral culture; the one with the lower, the other with the higher 
general culture. But there is yet another kind of education ab- 
solutely necessary for the highly cultivated mind, and the name 
university ought to be reserved for this. The mind, so long occu- 
pied with culture for culture's sake, must now devote itself to cul- 
ture for use in some special but noble field of activity. In one 
word, the characteristic of the university as distinguished from 
the college is, that it is essentially a collection of professional 
schools, unified and ennobled by the general course continuing. 
Of the educational tree, the schools are the roots, the college the 
stately trunk, the university the beautiful cluster of fruit-bearing 
branches, firmly united with the continuing but ever-diminishing 
trunk. 

The elementary-school graduate steps with ease from this grade 
of culture to a corresponding grade of life ; the high-school gradu- 
ate finds it more difficult ; the college graduate finds himself edu- 
cated up to a high plane of life, but entirely unable to take success- 
ful hold of any one of those pursuits which belong to his grade of 
intellectual activity. The university must span the wide chasm 
with many bridges. This she does by means of her professional 
schools. The educational tree, like the tree of life, must bear 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 225 

twelve manner of noblest fruits. This, I am convinced, is the true 
ideal of the university — an ideal not yet reached in any country, 
but which will be realized in the future. 

The English University system scorns to be regarded as other 
than high general culture. Its pride and boast is that it prepares 
for no special pursuit. 

The German University is in many respects an admirable 
system, yet I think it has great faults. I believe it is not in the 
direct line of progress toward the true ideal. 

The American University has as yet no distinctive character 
of its own. The terms college and university have heretofore 
been used synonymously. The traditional American college is 
modeled on the English system, while the ideal of reform here, as 
in England, is the German university. Hence, our best institu- 
tions are now essentially colleges with some university features 
added. Yet I feel sure that, untrammeled as we are by hindering 
traditions and a false constitution of society, our American insti- 
tutions, by further modifications, may and will approach the ideal 
nearer than any other. 

The True University, therefore, is a collection of the highest 
professional schools gathered about and united to a system of 
highest general culture — a cluster of fruit-bearing branches crown- 
ing the solid trunk of the educational tree. It is no longer cul- 
ture for culture's sake, but culture as a preparation for activity 
in the highest of all fields ; it is culture as a professional training 
for scholars, thinkers, investigators, teachers of the human race, 
leaders and directors of the thought of the age. If only a few 
such are turned out in a century, the university will have fulfilled 
its highest function. 

The General Course of Study. — The limits of this 
work necessitate extreme brevity in the discussion of the 
topics presented in this chapter. Fellow teacher, I ear- 
nestly call your attention to the importance of carefully 
studying the plan and outline of the general course of 
study. You are an artist, not an artisan. You need to 
understand the whole scheme. In thought, go with the 



226 



A CLASSIFIED SCHEME 





I. COSMOLOGY. 




1. The organic sciences, dealing with the laws 


2. The organic sciences, 




and properties of 


dealing with the laws 
and properties of 




Quantities. 


Motions and forces. 


Organisms. 


Class 








of 








School. 


, 






Mathematics. 


Dynamics. 


Organics. 




Arithmetic. 


The elements of Moler 


Geography. 






Elementary Algebra. 


and Molecular Phys- 


Elementary lessons in 


(H 




ics. 


Botany. 


£ -> 






Physiology. 


S o 






Hygiene. 


a" 








w 










Higher Algebra. 


Physics, Moler and Mo- 


Zoology. 




Geometry. 


lecular. 


Physical Geography. 


o 


Trigonometry. 


Astronomy (descriptive). 


Botany. 


o 

a 


Analytical Geometry. 


Chemistry. 


Physiology. 


03 

C3 

a 






Psychology. 




Analytical Geomotry 


Moler and Molecular 


Morphology. 




(continued). 


Physics. 


Physiology. 




Spherical Trigonom- 


Chemistry. 


Botany. 


ij 


etry. 


Mineralogy. 


Zoology. 


o 


Calculus, Differential : Geology. 


Psychology. 




and Integral. 


Meteorology. 
Astronomy. 





OF KNOWLEDGE. 



227 



II. ANDROLOGY. 


III. ONTOLOGY. 


1. The sciences per- : 2. The arts, useful and 


1. Theology, based 


2. Philosophy, based 


taining to Man in 


aosthetic, arising 


on the category 


on the category 


his social relations, 


from the reactions 


of Absolute Be- 


of Absolute Be- 


and arising from 


of mind on external 


ing conceived as 


ing viewed as the 


the reactions of 


nature. 


the Infinite Per- 


ultimate principle 


mind on mind. 




son. 


in the generaliza- 
tions of Science. 


Sociology, or Histor- 


Pragmatology, or 


Natural theology. 




ies. 


Technics and Linguis- 








tics. 






History of tho Unit- 


Spelling. 


Divine Wisdom, 




ed States. 


Reading. 


Divine Goodness, 






Writing. 


Divine Design, 






Grammar. 


Divine Power 






Drawing. 


(to be taught in 






Music (vocal). 


connection with 
natural - science 
lessons). 




History (universal). 


Grammar. 






Constitution of Unit- 


Analysis. 


Natural Theolo- 




ed States. 


Rhetoric (Composition 


gy, to be taught 




Ethics. 


and Declamation). 


in connection 






English Literature. 


with natural- 






Drawing. 


science lessons. 






Latin and Greek. 








Music (vocal and in- 








strumental). 






International Law. 


Rhetoric. 


Theology, natural 


Philosophy, to be 


Political Economy. 


Logic. 


and supernatu- 


studied as a doa- 


Sociogeny, or Sci- 


Elocution. 


ral. 


ble movement of 


ence of History. 


English Literature. 


The Philosophy of 


JiealismB.Tii.Id6- > 


Politics, or Science of 


Latin and Greek. 


Religion. 


alism. 


Government. 


Philology. 






Paideutics, or Sci- 


Music (vocal and in- 






ence of Education. 


strumental). 







228 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

learner through the elementary school, through the high 
school, through the college, through the special school, 
through his life-work. Adjust your part of the work to 
the whole. Give each lesson in view of the whole. 
Then, instead of being a thing of shreds and patches, 
our educational work will become systematic, harmonious, 
and truly 

" A thing of beauty ami a joy for ever." 

For the elaborate discussion of these subjects, the reader is 
referred to their exhaustive treatment by Dr. "\V r . T. Harris, of St. 
Louis, in his annual reports and addresses. Here Dr. Harris 
stands first among thinkers and educators. 

For the purpose of comparison and for its intrinsic merits, we 
here insert by permission " A Classified Scheme of Knowledge," by 
Prof. J. M. Long, given in his "Philosophy of the Sciences," a 
work that should be in the hands of every professional teacher. 



CHAPTER III. 

COURSE OF STUDY FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 

A well-digested Cotjese of Study, next to quali- 
fied teachers, is the great want of our elementary schools. 
The highest good of the millions is the issue involved. 
The school education of the masses is limited to the ele- 
mentary school. No measure for human elevation, now 
engaging the attention of states and nations, is fraught 
with greater good to the people than that of securing 
well-matured and well-adapted courses of study in all our 
elementary schools. The course needs to be both philo- 
sophical and practical, combining the wisest theory and 



COURSE OF STUDY FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 229 

the widest experience. In the preceding chapters the 
effort has been made to lay a broad and solid foundation ; 
we are now prepared to erect the superstructure. 

I. Psychological Basis. — The course of study is so 
arranged that pupils are daily brought into contact with 
each of the departments of science. Simultaneously all 
parts of the tree grow ; so, under this arrangement, all the 
powers of the pupil develop simultaneously. Here we 
find a cardinal principle of the science of education ; we 
reach the rock, and upon it base the course of study. 

II. Elementary ScnooL Period. — Six has been 
wisely fixed by most States as the minimum age for ad- 
mission. Where the Kindergarten method is used, pupils 
may safely be admitted when but four or five years old. 
As schools are generally managed, pupils under six should 
be excluded. The elementary school period properly in- 
cludes eight years — from six to fourteen. Some will not 
require the full time to complete the course, while others 
will need more. The course of study is arranged with 
reference to faithful pupils of average abilities and aver- 
age opportunities ; and it is aimed to be elastic, in order 
to be adapted to the varying wants of various pupils. 

III. The Elementary School Studies. — While 
reading, language lessons, arithmetic, and geography en- 
gage the chief energies, a beginning is made in all the 
departments of knowledge. Pupils who go on with their 
school work lay in experience, a solid foundation on which 
to build when they enter the high school and college. 
Those who enter life without further schooling will have 
an invaluable preparation for self-education and for the 
practical duties of life. Knowledge is both mental food 
and the instrument of the mind. The educated man is a 
master. Each study gives a special mastery. The place 



230 



COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 



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COURSE OF STUDY FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 231 

Elementary Schools include all schools, public and private, below 
the high school. The names, common schools, public schools, free 
schools, and primary schools, are commonly used to designate this grade 
of schools; -but these names are more or less objectionable. Elementary 
Schools is specific and unobjectionable. 

Primary and Grammar Schools. — Under the old organization of 
graded schools, the primary school included the first four years of the 
elementary course, and the grammar or intermediate school the second 
four years. Always unfortunate, these distinctions are now decidedly 
objectionable. No such division exists in the modern organization of un- 
graded or graded schools. The true plan, it is believed, is to abandon 
the distinction between primary and grammar departments, and make the 
elementary school one in name as well as in fact. There is no good rea- 
son for the distinction. Ungraded and graded schools will then have the 
same nomenclature — Elementary Schools with eight grades. 

Years and Grades. — First year, first grade; second year, second 
grade ; third year, third grade, etc. Every one will understand these 
terms without explanation. They do not confuse the parents nor the 
pupils. Unfortunately, the old plan of numbering the grades in the 
reverse order of the years is still retained in a few cities. The grades, 
however, are very properly designated by the letters H, G, F, E, D, C, B, 
A ; H corresponding to the first year, G to the second, etc. 

Divisions in Ungraded Schools. — The pupils are divided into four 
divisions. D division embraces those in the first and second years of the 
course ; C division, those in the third and fourth years ; B division, those 
in the fifth and sixth years ; and the A division, those in the seventh and 
eighth years. This plan makes it possible for one teacher to manage a 
large ungraded school. The course of study and the ideal programme 
are based on this grouping. 

School Terms. — The school year is divided into two terms of from 
three to five months each. Where the schools are sustained ten months, 
each term is five months, and a half term is called a quarter. In most 
States, the ungraded schools average from seven to nine months annu- 
ally. An average school term is about four months. The course has 
been arranged in view of the medium time. If the term is longer, more 
extended work can be done ; if shorter, less ground can be passed over. 

The Stars denote that the instruction is oral ; no text-book is used. 
In the first and second grades, all the work except reading is necessarily 
oral work ; the pupils will use no book except the Reader. 

The Figures denote the part of the work accomplished each term. 
Take the First Reader : ■£ does not mean £ of the book, but £ of the 
work proposed. Take arithmetic : -| does not mean £ of the book, but 
■J- of the course in advanced arithmetic. To proportion and adapt the 
work for each term is the mission of the teacher. Superintendents and 
principals may aid by giving general directions and appropriate sug- 
gestions, but minute specifications and the designation of pages should 
be avoided. The teacher must be trusted with a wide discretion both as 
to the ground covered and the methods pursued. 



232 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

of each of the common-school studies, and the mastery it 
gives, is a most interesting inquiry. 

1. Inorganic Nature. Mathematics and physics 
meet the child at the threshold, and bar all progress 
unless made through their portals. 

(1.) Arithmetic gives a Mastery over Number. 

(2.) Geometry gives a Mastery over Form and Mea- 
surement. 

(3.) Physics gives a Mastery over the Moler, Molecu- 
lar, and Chemical Forces. 

2. Organic Nature. (1.) Geography gives a Mas- 
tery over Place. This earth is our key, our measuring 
line, our unit. 

(2.) Botany gives a Mastery over Plant Life. The 
pupils learn to observe, to describe, to classify. No book 
need be used except the book of nature. 

(3.) Zoology gives a Mastery over Animal Life. The 
lessons given are objective and oral, as in botany. 

(4.) Physiology gives a Mastery over Right Living. 
Practical hygiene is incidentally taught. The objective 
phase of anatomy and physiology is learned. It is not wise 
to carry this branch very far in the elementary school. 

3. The Thought World. Man thinks and expresses 
his thoughts ; hence spoken and written language. 

(1.) Reading is the Door to all Treasured Knowledge. 
The ability to gain knowledge from books is of the first 
importance. To be an intelligent, impressive, and charm- 
ing reader and speaker is the greatest of all accomplish- 
ments. Preeminently, the work of the school is to teach 
wJiat to read and how to read it. 

(2.) Spelling. Before the fifth year, no spelling-book 
is used. The reading lessons, the object lessons, and the 
language lessons furnish abundant exercise in spelling. 



COURSE OF STUDY FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 233 

(3.) Etymology, Spelling, and Dictionary. Through- 
out the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth years, the ety- 
mology of our language is studied systematically. Spell- 
ing, here and everywhere, is chiefly written. Words are 
analyzed, defined, and correctly used. The recitations in 
this subject alternate with reading. The course of study 
indicates alternate terms for reading and etymology, but 
we find alternate recitations far more satisfactory. Each 
pupil now has a dictionary, and is persistently trained to 
use it. 

(4. ) Language Lessons and Grammar give a 3Iastery 
over Expression. The instruction is largely oral. The 
mastery of spelling, capitals, punctuation, correct ex- 
pression, chaste and fluent composition, and the great 
principles of our language, is the work of the district 
school. 

4. The Bea uty World. ^Esthetics gives a mastery 
over the elements of beauty. ^Esthetic culture increases 
our capacity to produce and enjoy the beautiful. 

(1.) Kindergarten wisely makes beauty a leading ele- 
ment. Although classed in this department, Kindergar- 
ten work enters into all departments where instruction is 
given to young children. 

(2.) Penmanship and Draioing recite on Alternate 
Days. With the books and charts now in use, any good 
teacher may teach these arts successfully. Experience 
shows that pupils make better writers by taking draw- 
ing and penmanship on alternate days than when they 
take penmanship daily, and omit drawing altogether. 
Taste and skill are more truly cultivated. 

(3.) Vocal Music is now widely recognized as a com- 
mon-school study, and, as in Germany, such recognition 
must become universal. Systematic instruction for a few 



234: COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

minutes daily will give nearly all the pupils a mastery 
over easy music. 

(4.) Colors. An occasional lesson, with incidental in- 
struction, is all that is needed to give a fair knowledge 
of colors. 

(5.) Juvenile Literature. A little attention to this 
subject will greatly benefit the pupils. What shall our 
boys and girls read ? Judicious instruction here will do 
great good. 

5. The Duty World. The constant and interested 
effort of the teacher and pupils is needed to develop good 
manners and noble characters. The instruction should 
for the most part be informal and incidental. The open- 
ing and closing exercises, cases of discipline, and incidents 
connected with the various lessons are some of the occa- 
sions for impressing duty. One short, systematic lesson 
each week should be given to each division. Instruction 
in duty is incomparably the most important of all school 
work. 

G. The Action World. 

(1.) History and Biography give a Mastery over Events. 
The oral instruction in history is given mainly in connec- 
tion with the geography and reading ; but systematic bi- 
weekly lessons should not be omitted. During the fourth 
and seventh years text-books are used. The oral biog- 
raphy throughout the course maybe incidentally given in 
connection with the reading and other lessons. A taste 
for reading history will be cultivated. 

(2.) Civil Government and Political Economy. To 
prepare intelligent citizens is one object of our elementary 
schools. The plan of our government and the plainest 
principles of political economy should certainly be taught. 
The synthetic process is used for beginners. We begin 



COURSE OF STUDY FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 235 

with the family, and build up the neighborhood, the 
school district, the township, the county, the state, the 
nation, the world. One short lesson each week is suffi- 
cient. During the eighth year small text-books may be 
used, and the subjects considered analytically. 

Remarks. — We must abandon the absurdity of trying to give 
what the parents call a thorough education in our common schools. 
All that can be well done there is, first, to awaken the love of 
knowledge in the child ; second, by natural methods of teaching, 
to instruct him how to use his mind and how to use books ; third, 
to bring him into vital contact with the realms of knowledge, by 
putting him in possession of first principles. The mass of useful 
information and the details of knowledge he must gain in his com- 
ing life. This we can achieve in the common school. 

The new education in the elementary school simply utilizes the 
law of variety ; it leads the child in pleasant ways from topic to 
topic, so that in a year it knows more about a dozen useful things 
than it knew about reading in the old district school, and has lived 
through the happiest year of its life, because its schooling has sim- 
ply been the continuation of the natural methods of developing its 
faculties, begun at the mother's knee. 

IV. Advantages of Country Schools. — These are 
many and great, and should be fully utilized. 

1. Vigorous Physical Manhood is a prominent and 
marked advantage. Country life and rural industry are 
far more favorable to physical development than are the 
conditions of city life. ; 

2. Habits of Industry, necessitated by country life, 
are largely to the advantage of country pupils. 

3. The Social and Moral Influences are also decidedly 
to the advantage of the country pupils. 

4. Nature favors the Country School. Animal and 
vegetable life surround the child. The means of culture 
are inexhaustible. 



236 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

V. Disadvantages of Country Schools. 

1. No Course of Study. Each teacher is left to do 
what seems right in his own eyes ; each one follows his 
own course of study. The new teacher pays little or no 
attention to the work of his predecessor. Each year the 
rock is rolled a short distance up the hill, only to be left 
to roll back again. Comparatively little real progress is 
made. For want of a good course of study, systemati- 
cally followed, fully half the time of both teachers and 
pupils is wasted. 

2. Inexperienced and Inefficient Teachers are a most 
serious Disadvantage. Cities have longer terms, pay bet- 
ter wages, and afford the hope of promotion ; hence, cities 
command the best teachers. Good and permanent teach- 
ers are sorely needed in the country schools. 

3. Short Terms are a great Disadvantage. A term of 
three months, though it does some good, is clearly an in- 
excusable educational waste. Every country school ought 
to be sustained from seven to ten months annually. 

4. Frequent Change of Teachers is Ruinous. Seldom 
does the same teacher remain in the same school longer 
than one or two terms. No sooner has he become ac- 
quainted with his work than he is compelled to seek an- 
other school. 

5. Irregular Attendance is a Crying Evil in Country 
Schools. Parents and teachers should combine to remedy 
this evil. 

6. Lack of Efficient Supervision. In some States there 
is no supervision. In no State is the supervision sufficient- 
ly systematic and all-pervading. 

VI. What Country Schools may be Made. — A 
course of study may be adopted and used ; good teachers 
may be provided ; terms may be lengthened ; and wise 



COURSE OF STUDY FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 237 

supervision may be secured. Because country pupils are 
stronger, more studious, and less affected by distractions, 
they will usually accomplish as much in seven or eight 
months as city pupils will in ten months . The combina- 
tion of work and study is decidedly advantageous. Work- 
ing mornings and evenings and during vacations, and 
studying hard during the school year, make country pu- 
pils, as a rule, stronger, physically and mentally, than 
their city cousins ; and, where they have had passable 
opportunities, they usually excel in the high school and 
the college and in practical life. 

VII. Grouping Country Schools. — That courses of 
study and programmes may be adapted to the various 
schools, it is found necessary to divide the schools of a 
county into two or three classes. • 

1. First-class Schools are such as employ first-class 
teachers, furnish the necessary instrumentalities, and sus- 
tain an annual session of not less than eight months. 
First-class schools can follow substantially the course of 
study here given, and also use the ideal programme. 

2. Second-class Schools are such as employ second-class 
teachers, and provide meager instrumentalities, but sus- 
tain an annual session of at least seven months. Second- 
class schools will need to omit from the course of study 
some of the oral work, as the teacher will not be qualified 
to give the necessary instruction. 

3. Third-class Schools are such as employ third-class 
teachers, and sustain an annual session of six months or 
less. Third-class schools will need to strike out nearly all 
the objective work and use the simplest programme. We 
can not expect third-class teachers to do efficient work. 

4. The Efficient County Superintendent, from year to 
year, groups the schools of his county, and labors to 



238 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

transform third-class schools into second-class, and sec- 
ond-class into first-class schools. A healthy emulation is 
encouraged. Third-class country schools ought speedily 
to disappear, and second-class schools ought, in the near 
future, to become the exceptions. 

VIII. Elementary School Diploma. — No single 
measure can do more to deepen the popular interest in 
elementary schools than the inauguration of graduation. 
Hundreds of thousands, who do not now dream of such 
a thing, will be stimulated to complete the course. No- 
thing can be more practical. 

IX. Elevation of Country Schools. — Search the 
history of those most distinguished in all the fields of 
human achievement. You will find that a vast proportion 
of these began their careers in the rural districts ; and, in 
modern times, in the country school. It will doubtless 
continue thus till the end of time. God made the coun- 
try and blessed it. The elevation of the country school is 
the grandest field of usefulness now open to statesmen 
and philanthropists. 



CHAPTER IV. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS — HOW TO USE THE COURSE OF 
STUDY IN UNGRADED AND SMALL GRADED SCHOOLS. 

What shall I Teach ? and how shall I Teach 
it ? Few problems are so important to the teacher. The 
hints here given, it is hoped, will aid in the solution. Not 
individual experience, but the results of all experience, 
are trustworthy. With singular unanimity, the world's 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 239 

educators substantially approve the following exhibit of 
the elementary school work. This chapter is designed 
for constant reference ; it is a key to the course of study 
as well as to the ideal programme. It is the first attempt, 
so far as I know, to completely systematize and outline 
the work in ungraded schools. 

D DIVISION". (First and Second Yeabs.) 

INOEGANIO WORLD. 

Objective Arithmetic (short Daily Lessons). 

First Year. Numbering groups of objects from | | to ] | | | | | ; 
counting objects and writing numbers to 50 ; addition and sub- 
traction of l's, 2's, 3's, 4's, to 20. Use the signs +, — , and =. 

Second Year. Numbering groups of objects to 12 ; counting 
by 2's, 3's, 4's, and 5's, to 100 ; writing and reading numbers 
to 1,000 ; addition, subtraction, and multiplication, to 50 ; Roman 
numbers in connection with the numbering of the reading les- 
sons to O. 

Objective Geometry (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Forms and names 
of solids ; plane figures and lines ; Kindergarten work. Have the 
pupils handle the blocks and sticks, and draw the forms on slates 
and boards. 

Objective Physics (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Gravitation, rest, 
motion; properties of bodies. Give easy illustrations, but no 
theory. 

(Bi-weekly and weekly indicate the proportion of time given 
to subjects, rather than intervals between lessons.) 

ORGANIC WORLD. 

Objective Geography (Daily Lessons). — First Year. De- 
velop the ideas — above, below, between, near, far, over; teach 
the cardinal poiuts ; train the children to locate things in the 
school-room ; recall child experience, and lead the pupils to ob- 
serve and express. 

Second Year. Directions and locations ; map of school-room ; 



24:0 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

map of school-grounds ; bodies of water and divisions of land. 
Use geography board. 

Objective Botany (Bi-weekly Lessons). 

First Year. Leaves and flowers — form, colors, parts. 

Second J ear. Most common plants ; roots, stems, leaves, and 
flowers; how plants grow from the seed. 

Objective Zoology (Bi-weekly Lessons). 

First Year. Summer: insects — form, color. "Winter: domes- 
tic animals — color, food, form, habits, uses. 

Second Year. Summer: insects proper — beetles, butterflies, 
bees, grasshoppers, etc. "Winter: rats, mice, rabbits, domestic 
fowls — treated as in first year. 

Physiology and Hygiene (Incidental and Bi-weekly Lessons). 

THOUGHT WORLD. 

Beading and Spelling (Two Lessons Daily). 

First Year. Easy words and sentences from board and charts ; 
First Reader begun and completed ; every word made familiar 
before reading; the reading just like talking; all lessons printed 
or written on slate, and read from slates as well as from books 
and charts; words in reading lesson spelled by sound and by 
letter; combine the word, sentence, and phonic methods. 

Second Year. The Second Reader begun and completed. Les- 
sons should be written on slates and read from them as well as 
from books ; words in lesson spelled by sound and by letter ; oral 
and written spelling ; distinct conversational tones developed ; 
short advance lessons and daily reviews. 

Language Lessons (Daily Lessons). — First Year. Simple and 
familiar objects described. Full statements should be required of 
pupils ; ungrammatical statements always corrected, but no rea- 
sons or rules given. Oral composition and short printed or writ- 
ten compositions. 

Second Year. Less familiar objects described; uses and prop- 
erties of objects taught. Lead pupils to construct and arrange 
sentences. As in the first year, correct ungrammatical statements, 
but give no rules. Oral and written composition. The matter for 
the language lessons will usually be the same as in the oral work. 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 241 



BEAUTY WORLD. 

Penmanship and Drawing (alternate Daily Lessons). — Let- 
ters and words copied from board and charts on slates. Draw on 
slates and board ; combine lines ; geometrical outlines ; outline of 
leaves ; simple designs with straight lines. 

Yooal Musio (short Daily Lessons). — Practical rote or imita- 
tion singing, including songs and scale, using tbe syllables and ah. 
Heading music from one to five of the scale ; no skips, but com- 
mencing one of the scale on different degrees of the staff". Illus- 
trate length, pitch, and power. Give names of departments and 
the subject of each department. The use of notes ; exercise with 
quarter notes in double time ; explain p, /, pp, ff, quarter rest ; 
review frequently. 

Colors (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Primary and secondary colors; 
common colors ; prism and solar spectrum. Use color chart, col- 
ored crayon, tissue paper, and objects. 

Kindergarten Work (Daily Lessons). — Keep the little ones 
interested and busy ; make their amusements educational ; in the 
absence of Kindergarten gifts, invent apparatus. 

DUTY WORLD. 

Manners (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Cleanliness, neatness, and 
quietness. Let particular attention be paid to the manner of an- 
swering. For the most part teach manners incidentally. 

Morals (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Obedience, truthfulness, 
promptness. Appropriate stories; be true to nature; teach by 
example; train. 

Eeligion (Opening Exercises). — Sacred songs, reading Bible, 
prayer ; incidental lessons ; nothing denominational, nothing of- 
fensive ; the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. 

ACTION WORLD. 

Oral Biography, Oral History, and Government (Bi- 
weekly). — Most of the instruction in these subjects will be given 
11 



24:2 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

incidentally ; still, regular lessons are deemed of great impor- 
tance. 

Management — D Division. 

1. Length of Lessons. From 10 to 20 minutes. 

2. Government. Keep the little ones interested and 
busy ; direct and manage ; be gentle and kind. Your 
approval will be the highest reward, and your disapproval 
the severest punishment. 

3. Hand-Work. Give the children plenty of hand- 
work ; always examine the work ; approve faithful effort. 

4. Vary the Work. Children weary of monotony. A 
pleasing variety characterizes good management. Some 
Kindergarten work will be found highly beneficial. 

5. Dismiss the D's half an hour earlier than the oth- 
ers, both in the forenoon and the afternoon. 

DIVISION". (Third and Fourth Years.) 

INORGANIC WORLD. 

Primary Arithmetic (Daily Lessons). — Third Year. Practice 
in the fundamental rules ; use of signs ; addition, subtraction, mul- 
tiplication, and division tables ; Koman numbers ; weights and mea- 
sures begun; metric as well as common weights and measures 
used. Use an attractive primary arithmetic. 

Fourth Year. Forming composite numbers and involution ; 
factoring and evolution by factoring ; multiple divisor, cancella- 
tion ; weights and measures ; some practical problems. Combine 
oral and written work ; review continually. An easy primary 
arithmetic completed. 

Objective Geometry (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Angles, relations 
of lines, relations of angles, relations of simple figures. Use sticks 
and blocks as well as the board and slates. 

Objective Physics (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Simple mechanical 
powers ; applications of force. The apparatus necessary may be 
constructed by the teacher and pupils. 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 243 

OBGANIO WOELD. 

Pemaey Geogeaphy (short Daily Lessons). — An easy primary 
geography begun and completed; the objective work continued. 
During the fourth year geography and history will be recited on 
alternate days and combined as far as possible. 

Objective Botany (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Third Year. Va- 
riations in root, stem, and leaves; double flowers; how plants 
grow, continued ; endogens and exogens. 

Fourth Year. Flowers — their uses and modifications ; ovary 
and its development ; fruits. 

Objective Zoology (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Third Year. Sum- 
mer : insects, spiders, and myriapods ; segments and rings of body. 
Winter : birds ; vertebrate structure ; birds and mammals com- 
pared. 

Fourth Year. Summer: crustaceans and worms ; comparison 
of the classes of articulates. Winter : reptiles and batrachians ; 
comparison of these with mammals and birds. 

Physiology and Hygiene (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Circulatory 
organs ; inspiratory organs ; practical hygiene. 

THOUGHT WOELD. 

Reading and Spelling (Daily Lessons). — The Third Reader 
begun and finished; words spelled and embodied in sentences; 
diacritical marks and classification of elementary sounds. Pupils 
use a small dictionary, and define words by synonyms as well as 
by use. Practice on elementary sounds. 

Language Lessons (Daily Lessons). — A suitable book may be 
used — language lessons, not technical grammar. Pictures may be 
brought before the class, and connected descriptions required. 
Simple rules for capitalization and punctuation taught. Daily 
work in composition required ; subjects the same as in the oral 
work; language used by pupils carefully noticed ; object words, 
action words, and quality words taught. Ideas underlying other 
parts of speech developed, but no technical terms given ; sentences 
as to use; elements of simple sentences. Practical command of 
our language, and not theory, is the object. 



244 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 



BEAUTY WORLD. 

Penmanship and Drawing (alternate Daily Lessons). — Use 
suitable copy-bopks ; impromptu writing exercises on board and 
paper; self-criticism. Use suitable drawing-books; continue 
drawing on slates and board ; draw and describe geometrical 
figures ; draw parts of flowers and plants, and give tbe botanical 
terms. 

Vocal Music (short Daily Lessons). — Sing songs ; scales from 
C below the staff to E fourth space ; whole and half notes and 
dotted whole and half notes ; G clef, F clef. Explain sharp, flat, 
and natural. Transpose scale to G, D, F, and B flat. Exercise 
in triple and quadruple time. Eeading music in G, D, F, and B 
flat. Explain tie, slur, hold, cres., dim., andante, moderato, allegro, 
and ad libitum. 

Colors (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Complementary and supplemen- 
tary colors; formation of secondary and tertiary colors; shades 
and tints. 

Juvenile Literature (Bi-weekly Lessons). — What shall our 
boys and girls read ? How can a taste for pure, useful literature 
be cultivated ? Who are some of the great authors ? The lessons 
will be devoted largely to these points, and to reading or reciting 
choice selections. 

DUTY WORLD. 

Manners and Morals. — Systematic lessons given weekly; 
constant attention to the manners and morals of the pupils. By 
using some suggestive work the teacher will be able to accom- 
plish much more than by drifting. 

ACTION WORLD. 

Primary U. S. History (alternate with Geography). — During 
the third year, incidental lessons in oral biography and history ; 
during the fourth year, a suitable primary history will be used ; 
combine geography and history. 

Civil Government (Bi-weekly Lessons). — The family, the 
school district, the township, the county and county officers. 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 245 

Political Economy. — The simplest principles illustrated in 
connection with geography, history, and civil government. 

Management — C Division. 

1 . Lessons. Length, from 15 to 25 minutes. 

2. Government. Order secured by systematic work ; 
pupils trained to act from a sense of duty and stimulated 
to self-government ; respect for law and for persons in 
authority cultivated. 

Oral Work. One lesson each day. The teacher must 
carefully prepare these lessons from day to day. Teach 
a few things well, and make each lesson a review of pre- 
vious lessons. We can not too strongly insist upon the 
importance of this work. The teacher who can not con- 
duct the oral work successfully has probably mistaken 
his calling. 

B DIVISION. (Fifth and Sixth Years.) 

INORGANIC "WORLD. 

Arithmetic (Daily Lessons). — Fifth Year. Complete arith- 
metic begun. Keview fundamental rules; fractions — reduction, 
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division ; practical prob- 
lems ; mental and written arithmetic combined. 

Sixth Year. Decimals and Federal money ; practical problems 
and accounts ; denominate numbers ; tables constructed ; re- 
duction and practical problems. Combine mental and written 
arithmetic. 

Oral Geometry (Bi-weekly lessons). — Review of previous 
lessons ; equivalent surfaces ; measurements. 

Oral Physics (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Review; sound; heat; 
chemical elements. 

ORGANIC WORLD. 

Geography (Daily Lessons). — Complete geography begun. 
Mathematical, physical, and political, combined ; map-drawing ; 



246 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

imaginary journeys; the earth considered as an organism ; winds 
and ocean currents. Make the study attractive ; use globes and 
wall maps; teach thoroughly the great features; avoid cum- 
bering the mind with unimportant details. Constantly connect 
geography and history. 

Astronomy (in connection with Geography). — Solar system ; 
a few constellations. 

Botany. (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Fifth Year. Oral plant-analy- 
sis; grouping of plants ; modes of distributing seed. 

Sixth Year. Oral plant-analysis; modes of fertilization of 
plants. 

Objective Zoology (Bi-weekly Lessons).— Fifth Year. Sum- 
mer: insects proper — crude classification. Winter: crude clas- 
sification of mammals — bimana, carnivora, herbivora, roden- 
tia, etc. 

Sixth Year. Summer: articulate structure; mollusks; com- 
parison of mollusks, articulates, and vertebrates. Winter : fishes ; 
crude classification of birds. 

Physiology and Hygiene (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Digestive 
organs ; the skeleton ; the muscles ; practical hygiene. 

TnOTJGHT WORLD. 

Beading (alternate with Etymology).— Fourth or Fifth Reader ; 
vocal drill ; attributes of voice ; some features of style. Few un- 
graded schools can afford to have classes in both the Fourth and 
Fifth Readers at the same time ; the A's and B's use the same book. 

Etymology (alternate with Reading). — Word-analysis ; writ- 
ten spelling and defining ; use of dictionary. 

Composition and Grammar (Daily Lessons). — Use the best 
book that can be procured ; give drills in parts of speech and 
their modifications up to verbs. Analysis and composition ; let 
the composition be oral as well as written, that the pupils may 
become accustomed to speaking well at the same time that they 
learn to write well ; capitals and punctuation reviewed. Never 
fail to criticise faulty language used by pupils ; mastery of our 
language, not technical grammar, is the end sought. 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 247 



BEAUTY WOELD. 

Penmanship and Drawing (alternate Daily Lessons). — Suit- 
able copy-books ; impromptu writing on board and paper. Suit- 
able drawing-books; sketcb flowers, leaves, and otber objects 
from nature ; learn terms used in perspective. 

Vocal Mijsio (Daily Lessons). — Sing scale from G below staff 
to G above ; transpose scales to A, E, A flat, and E flat ; exercise 
in double, triple, quadruple, and sextuple time ; reading music in 
various keys; explain D. 0., D. S., sign, staccato, repeat-dots, 
modulation, allegretto, andantino, presto, retard. 

Juvenile Literature (Weekly Lessons). — A suitable book 
will prove of great value bere ; wbat to read and bow to read 
taugbt. 

DUTY WORLD. 

Manners (Bi-weekly and Incidentally). 
Morals (Bi-weekly and Incidentally). 

action world. 

History (in connection witb Geography ). 

Civil Government (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Review of pre- 
vious lessons ; the State Constitution, laws, officers. 

Political Economy. — A few leading principles in connection 
witb civil government and geography. 

Management — B Division. 

1. Recitations. From 25 to 30 minutes. 

2. Government. Self-government ; pupils trained to 
act from principle. 

3. Oral Work. One lesson each day. 

4. To designate specific work is unwise. Everything 
depends upon the teacher. Persons who are not full of 
the subjects, and who do not prepare for each day's work, 
are certainly unfit to teach district schools. 



248 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

A DIVISION. (Seventh and Eighth Yea.es.) 

INOEGANIO WOELD. 

Aeithmetio (Daily Lessons). — Seventh Year. Denominate 
numbers completed ; review of common and decimal fractions ; 
percentage and application ; writing notes, drafts, and receipts ; 
day-book and ledger. 

Eighth Year. Equation of payments; proportion: evolution; 
mensuration ; algebraic symbols and algebraic solutions of prob- 
lems; simplest form of book-keeping; reviews and practical 
problems. 

During the first four school years proportionally less 
time is given to arithmetic than to other subjects, be- 
cause child-mind is not sufficiently developed for arith- 
metical reasoning. During the second four years, from 
ten to fourteen, arithmetic receives as much attention as 
the other leading branches. By pursuing the course in- 
dicated, unflagging interest will be secured and the best 
results obtained. 

Oeal Geometey (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Review ; relations of 
planes ; relations of solid figures. 

Physios (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Review ; ligbt ; electricity ; 
elements and compounds. 

Severe Criticism. — " I have read the proof of ' Elementary Course of 
Study ' and your impractical suggestions, and I must say it is superlative 
nonsense. Twenty branches for common schools ! ye shades of the 
three R's ! Bi-weekly recitations ! ye ghosts of the old schoolmasters ! 
No teacher with intelligence above a mosquito will be fooled by such 
idiotic stuff. One lesson in two weeks for children ! We practical teach- 
ers know that children forget nine tenths of the instruction when the 
lessons come daily. I can think of no expletives that will do the subject 
justice. But no teacher outside the insane asylum will attempt to follow 
your suggestions." 

Reply. — " Faithful are the wounds of a friend." He who would 
please all must deal in well-worn platitudes and glittering generalities. 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 249 

He who dares to advance, or who ventures into the dangerous field of 
details, will meet opposition enough. I accept the situation. " First pure, 
then peaceable," 

Looking at the subject from the standpoint of the old education, it 
i3 not surprising that my friend is horrified. Change your standpoint, 
friend, and view the matter in the light of the new education. The scales 
may fall from your eyes, and you may wonder how you could have been 
so blind and mistaken. The old education tried to teach abstractions 
and mere book lessons. The children could not remember because they 
did not understand. Neither the matter nor the method was adapted. 

In the new education the child sees, and hears, and handles, and does. 
What he learns of one subject he uses in others. The things he learns in 
his oral lessons he uses in his reading lessons, his language lessons, and 
his other lessons. What he learns to-day he reviews to-morrow, and what 
he learns this week he reviews next week, and the next, and the next. 
What he learns in school he applies out of school. Few and precious are 
the things taught, but they are mastered. They are called up again and 
again, and in various relations, until they become a part of the child's 
self. The plan as outlined is now substantially followed in the best 
schools in Europe and America. As rapidly as our teachers master the 
true philosophy of education, they will of necessity in substance pursue 
this plan. I welcome criticism and discussion. Error will ultimately 
yield, and truth will triumph. I can afford to wait. 

ORGANIC WORLD. 

Geography (Daily Lessons). — Seventh Year. Geography re- 
viewed in connection with U. S. history ; no advanced work. 

Eighth Tear. Geography completed ; careful review ; consid- 
erable attention given to mathematical and physical geography. 

If the teaching has been judicious, the pupil has ac- 
quired such knowledge as is needed in practical life ; if 
he advances, he will thoroughly review descriptive in con- 
nection with physical geography during the first year in 
the high school. 

Objective Geology. — A few lessons in connection with 
geography ; minerals collected and classified. 



250 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

Botany (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Seventh Year. Plant-analysis ; 
classification of plants. 

Eighth Year. Plant-analysis ; plant-structure ; review. 

During the first four years the leading object is to cul- 
tivate the observing powers, and have the child become 
familiar with the forms and relations of roots, stems, 
leaves, flowers, and fruits. The names are learned inci- 
dentally. During the fifth and sixth years classification 
and plant-analysis are taught orally. During the seventh 
and eighth years each pupil should have a small book, 
such as " How Plants Grow," or " Youmans's Second 
Book." 

Objective Zoology (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Seventh Year. 
Summer: habits of insects ; noxious and beneficial insects. Win- 
ter: radiates and protozoans ; five branches of animal kingdom. 

Eighth Year. Summer : animals injurious and useful to man. 
Winter : general review of zoology and classification of animals. 

How to observe animals and learn their habits must be 
the central thought throughout the course. In this work 
noxious and beneficial insects will receive the most atten- 
tion. Some time should be devoted to insects each year. 
The general principles of classification should come in 
incidentally. 

Physiology and Hygiene (Bi-weekly Lessons). — The brain ; 
the nervous system ; tho sensory organs ; review of previous les- 
sons. During the last year it is better to place a suitable book in 
the hands of the pupils. During a part of the eighth year, daily 
lessons may in turn be given in physiology, zoology, and botany. 
A foundation should be laid in experience for the systematic study 
of these subjects in the high school and college, as well as in prac- 
tical life. 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. '251 

THOUGHT WORLD. 

Beading (alternate with Etymology). — Seventh Year. Fifth 
Reader; inflection, emphasis, quality, form, and force; styles — 
narrative, descriptive, and didactic. 

Eighth Year. Fifth Reader ; easy lessons in stress, pitch, quan- 
tity, and grouping ; some attention to action ; special vocal drill. 

Etymology (alternate with Reading). — Thorough study of 
word-analysis ; written spelling ; use of dictionary. 

Composition and Geammae (Daily Lessons). — Begin with 
verbs ; develop the sub-classes of the parts of speech ; finish the 
parts of speech and their modifications; analysis and parsing: 
peculiar and idiomatic expressions discussed ; work in grammati- 
cal figures ; conversation led by teacher, in which language used 
by pupils is carefully noticed ; composition. 

The best grammarians are those who use the best con- 
structions, not those who can give most glibly the rules 
for these constructions. While I have little sympathy for 
extremists who seek to expel grammar from our elemen- 
tary schools, 1 have none for those who adhere to the old 
profitless methods of merely teaching technical grammar. 
The subject must be developed from the standpoint of 
language. Practice must lead up to principles. 

BEAUTY WOELD. 

Penmanship and Deawing (alternate Daily Lessons). — Suita- 
ble copy-books ; suitable drawing-books. Draw from geometrical 
solids and from objects in nature ; some principles of light and 
shade ; designs applicable to useful purposes ; art criticism. 

"Writing and drawing are so valuable, practically and 
educationally, that they are combined throughout the 
course. Pupils will become better writers by taking draw- 
ing on alternate days. Drawing is no more difficult to 
teach or learn than penmanship. " Drawing," says Presi- 



252 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

dent Pickard, " in its industrial phase, is a chief agent in 
hand-culture. Its importance will be more and more felt 
as manual skill becomes more imperatively the demand of 
the times." 

Juvenile Literature (Weekly Lessons). — With a suitable book, 
direction may be given to the pupils' present and future course 
of reading. Nothing can be more important. 

Vooal Musio (Daily Lessons). — Practice scales with ah. 
Review transposition and modulation. Introduce tonic, dominant, 
dominant seventh, and subdominant chords. Reading in various 
keys. Explain lento, animato, largo, accelerando. 

By devoting fifteen minutes daily, most pupils will 
learn to sing, and to read music as easily as print. 

DUTY WORLD. 

Manners (Bi-weekly Lessons). 
Morals (Bi-weekly Lessons). 

ACTION WORLD. 

United States History (Daily Lessons). — Teach thoroughly 
the leading facts ; review daily ; lead the pupils to actualize the 
events. Suitable book begun and completed during the seventh 
year. 

Civil Government (Bi-weekly Lessons). — Constitution and 
government of the United States. A suitable book should now 
be placed in the hands of the pupils. 

Political Economy (Bi-weekly Lessons). — An easy book may 
now be used, but the instruction will be largely oral. No knowl- 
edge is more needed to prepare for citizenship than that acquired 
in this department. Theories are not discussed. Facts are given, 
and principles are constantly illustrated by concrete cases. 

Agriculture. — One or more terms of oral work may with 
great profit be devoted to this subject. Lupton's " Scientific 
Agriculture " is an admirable book for this purpose. 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 253 

Management — A Division. 

1. Length of Recitation. From twenty-five to thirty 
minutes. 

2. Study. Considerable study out of school will be 
expected ; two hours daily will injure no one. 

3. Government. Self-government as the result of right 
instruction and wise management. The pupils of this 
age are expected to be models of decorum. Appeal to the 
highest motives. 

4. Oral Work. Less oral work is needed with this 
division ; the pupils are now able to gain knowledge from 
books, and are less dependent on the teacher. 

5. The Recitations. In large ungraded schools, com- 
bined and alternate recitations are a necessity. The pu- 
pils of this grade must study more and recite less. 

6. Higher Branches. On no account attempt to teach 
algebra, rhetoric, natural philosophy, or other of the 
higher branches, in the elementary school. Legitimate 
work will engage all your time and energies. Exceptions 
to this rule should be strictly exceptional. 

Eemaeks on the Outline. 

1. For Ungraded Schools. This outline is strictly 
applicable to ungraded schools, and to the ideal pro- 
gramme presented in the following chapter ; however, 
with slight changes, it may be adapted to primary and 
grammar schools, and to any programme. To give sys- 
tem and efficiency to the work in district schools is of 
paramount importance. 

2. Full Outlines. The outline is purposely made 
full ; each teacher must emphasize the work for which he 
is best fitted and has the best facilities, but must not neg- 



254 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

lect the other work. So little has been done to help the 
country teachers that fullness of detail and even repetition 
are more than justifiable. 

3. Sloiv, healthful Development. There must be no 
forcing, no crowding, no cramming. The teacher must 
understand the plan of child-mind and the relative value 
of the branches taught. There must be complete adap- 
tation. Touching daily the entire circle, child-mind de- 
velops slowly, but healthfully and symmetrically. 

4. Practical Value. The millions complete their 
school education in the district school ; hence the work 
outlined is such as is deemed best to develop a noble man- 
hood and to fit all for practical life ; it, at the same time, 
is admirably calculated to fit pupils for the high school. 
The advantage of such a course of study over that of 
the three R's is as great as that of the express train over 
the old lumbering stage-coach. 

5. The Coming Teacher. None but qualified teachers 
should be employed in the ungraded school. To such it 
will be a constant pleasure to follow the course of study 
outlined. The " New York Journal of Education " well 



" The corning teachers will teach, not merely hear recitations ; 
their pupils will acquire knowledge after the normal method of 
childhood, by being taught, by seeing and thinking, instead of by 
the memorizing of words from books. Language will be taught 
by talking-lessons and writing-lessons about pictures, plants, ani- 
mals, every-day life and experience. Oral instruction will be 
given upon form, color, measures ; animals will be grouped by 
habits ; vegetables, minerals, hygiene, and the human body will 
be studied objectively. The metric system will be taught from 
the metric apparatus. ISTo spelling-books will be used before the 
fifth year, the reading-books taking their place. In the stead of 
parsing and other technical work, lessons will first be given in 



THE PROGRAMME IN UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 255 

composition, in the use of capitals, in letter- writing, and in the 
arrangement of sentences. Books will be used, but oral instruc- 
tion will predominate. Children need the loving teacher. The 
coming teachers will have to know something. Their knowledge 
will have to be real 'live' knowledge, not dead verbiage; and 
they will need to know a good deal about the natural, social, and 
industrial life that the children come in contact with out of doors 
and at home." 

The coming teacher will be a student of nature and 
society as well as of books. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE PROGKAMME IN UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

The teacher has a greater work to do than has the 
commander of an army, and his campaigns need to be 
planned with even greater care and skill. The pro- 
gramme is a prominent part of the plan of an educational 
campaign. The construction of a good programme for 
any school is a most difficult problem ; for an ungraded 
school it is peculiarly difficult. The following princi- 
ples may aid in the solution. 

I. Adaptation. — The Programme must be Adapted 
to the School. Numbers, advancement, instrumentalities, 
and surroundings need to be duly considered. The pro- 
gramme must be constructed in view of the actual con- 
dition of things. 

II. Employment. — Specific Employment must be pro- 
vided for each Pupil during the entire School Day . Study, 
recitation, and recreation need to be wisely proportioned. 



256 COUESES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

To arrange the time for specific study by each division 
is as necessary as to fix the time for recitations. System- 
atic and well-directed effort is fundamental in education. 

III. Teaching Houes. — All the Teaching should be 
done during the Six School Hours. To keep the pupils 
longer is barbarous ; nor can the strongest man do efficient 
teaching for a longer period. Eecitations during recesses, 
or before or after school, are evils. Exceptional cases 
may justify the temporary violation of this principle ; 
but, however large the school, a good programme, it is 
believed, will enable the teacher to do all his legitimate 
school work within the school hours. 

IV. Length of Eecitations. — Adequate Time must 
be secured for each Recitation. Ten minutes is the mini- 
mum time for an efficient recitation. Eecitations of from 
three to eight minutes simply waste the time of both 
pupils and teacher. Time for thorough work must be 
secured, but no recitation in the elementary school should 
exceed thirty minutes. The artifices to economize time 
are indicated in the following pages. 

V. Combined Eecitations. — Two Classes in the same 
Branch may Recite at the same Time. One class draws 
maps while the other is drilled orally ; one solves examples 
while the other explains ; one does written work while the 
other does oral work ; both classes review together. Com- 
bined recitations should not be attempted except by skill- 
ful teachers and in large ungraded schools. Such reci- 
tations, in good hands, and with abundant blackboard 
surface, give excellent results, often doubling the effi- 
ciency of the teacher. 

VI. Eests. — Two Rests during each Half Day are 
highly Important. They are needed to maintain vig- 
orous health. Once each hour, in the open air, the 



THE PROGRAMME IN UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 257 

pupils expand their lungs and call into activity every 
muscle. Besides, thorough and certain ventilation is 
thus secured. This arrangement enables pupils to accom- 
plish more and better work, and renders it much easier to 
preserve order. The school day is thus divided into six 
periods of about one hour each. 

VII. Due Attention to Each Pupil. — Each Pupil 
should have a Recitation during each of the School Sours. 
A just proportion of the time is due to each class. Too 
much care can not be taken in the application of this 
principle. The lower classes must not be neglected. 

VIII. Concentration. — The entire School should be 
Engaged upon the same Subject. As far as practicable, 
this principle should be applied in the construction of 
the programme. One hour can be devoted to language 
lessons and grammar, one to arithmetic, one to reading 
and spelling, one to geography and history, one to art, 
and one to oral work. This principle, though not gener- 
ally accepted, is believed to be sound. ISTo other arrange- 
ment is so simple or so natural. No other plan proves so 
satisfactory in practice. 

In view of the above principles, the course of study, 
and the practical suggestions, we will now proceed to 
construct an ideal programme for ungraded schools. 

IDEAL PROGRAMME — EXPLANATIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

I. D Division. — If possible, place all the pupils of this 
grade in one class, and use either the First or Second 
Eeader. Where this is impracticable and the school is 
large, have one of the advanced pupils hear alternately 
with yourself the First and Second Readers. Usually 
you will have one or more pupils who wish to become 
teachers, and this will be good practice. If the school is 



258 



IDEAL PROGRAMME FOR 



KsCITATIONS. 



Time-Table. 



D Division. 

Fikst and Second Teaks. 



Opening Exercises. . . 
C and D. Lang. Less . 
A and B. Gram, and 
Composition 



8.50 to 9.00—10 m. 
9.00 to 9.20—20 m. 

9.20 to 9.50—30 m. 



j Kindergarten and Lan- 
\ guage Lesson 



9.50 to 10—10 m. 


A and B. Arithmetic. 


10.00 to 10.10— 10 m. 
10.10 to 10.25— 15 m. 
10.25 to 10.55— SO m. 




Print or Write Read. Les. 


10.55 to 11.05—10 m. 



D. Reading and Spell 
C. Reading and Spell 
A and B. Reading 
or Etymology. . . . 



11.05 to 11. 15— 10 m. 
11.15 to 11.30— 15 m. 

11.30 to 12.00— 30 m. 



Print or Write Read. Les. 
Kindergarten or Dismiss. 



12.00 to 1.00—60 m. 



D. Geography I 

C. Geography or His- ) i 

tory J 

A and B. Geography ) 

or History ) 



1.00 to 1.10—10 m. 
1.10 to 1.25—15 m. 

1.25 to 1.55—30 m. 



Draw Maps 

Kindergarten Work. . . . 



1.55 to 2.05—10 m. 



D. Reading and Spell. . 
Writing or Drawing.. . 
Vocal Music 



2.05 to 2.15—10 m. 
2.15 to 2.40—25 m. 
2.40 to 2.55—15 m. 



2.55 to 3.05—10 m. 



D. Oral Work 

C. Oral Work 

A and B. Oral Work. 

General Business and j 

Dismiss I 



3.05 to 3.15 — 10 m. 




3.15 to 3.30—15 m. 


Print or Write Lang. Les. 


3.30 to 4.00—30 m. 


Kindergarten or Dismiss. 


4.00 to 4.10 — 10 m. 









UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



259 



Study. 


C Division. 

Thied and Foubth 

Yeaes. 


B Division. 
Fifth and Sixth Yeaes. 


A Division. 

Seventh and Eighth 
Teaks. 










Gram, and Composition.. 


Gram, and Composition. 


Language Lesson.. 






Recess. 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 




Arithmetic 












Recess. 


Reading and Spell.. 


Reading or Etymology. . . 
Reading or Etymology. . . 


Reading or Etymology. 
Reading or Etymology. 










Noon. 


Geog. or History. . . 


Geography or History. . . 
Geography or History . . . 


Geography or History. 
Geography or History. 










Recess. 


Drawing or Writing. 




Drawing or Writing. 














Recess. 


Oral Work 


Oral Work and Compos'n 
Oral Work and Compos'n 


Oral W'k and Compos'n. 
Oral W'k and Compos'n. 


Write Composition. 













260 



COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 



SCHEDULE OF ORAL WOKK. 



Days. 


D Division. 


C Division. 


B Division. 


A Division. 


Monday. 


Obj. Geometry. 


Obj. Geometry. 


Obj. Geometry. 


Obj. Geometry. 


Tuesday. 


Obj. Botany. 


Obj. Botany. 


Obj. Botany. 


Obj. Botany. 


Wednesday. 


Obj. Zoology. 


Obj. Zoology. 


Obj. Zoology. 


Obj. Zoology. 


Thursday. 


Gen. Obj. Less. 


Civ. Governm't. 


Civ. Government. 


Civ. Government. 


Friday. 


Manners. 


Manners. 


Manners. 


Manners. 


Monday. 


Obj. Physics. 


Obj. Physics. 


Obj. Physics. 


Obj. Physics. 


Tuesday. 


Biog. and Hist. 


Gen. Obj. Less. 


Juvenile Lit. 


Juvenile Lit. 


Wednesday. 


Hygiene. 


Hygiene. 


Physiology. 


Physiology. 


Thursday. 


Colors. 


Colors. 


Political Econ. 


Political Econ. 


Friday. 


Morals. 


Morals. 


Morals. 


Morals. 



Remarks. — On the above plan, the teacher may construct a schedule 
to suit his work ; the schedule will need reconstruction each term. We 
wish here simply to outline the work and show its practicability. With- 
out crowding and without interfering with other work, all the subjects 
named in the course of study may be taught. Changes must be made to 
suit the seasons. Lessons in botany will be given weekly during the fall 
and spring ; lessons in zoology will be given weekly during the winter 
mouths. Objective geometry may come weekly one term, and next term 
objective physics. In some subjects bi-weekly lessons are sufficient ; in 
most subjects the intervals between lessons should be much shorter. In 
some subjects, the lessons may be given to the entire school ; in other 
subjects, the C's and D's may be drilled together. Thus the intervals 
between lessons may be greatly shortened. But it is impossible to give 
specific directions. The wise teacher will know how to plan and to 
conduct oral work. By pursuing this plan a many-sided development 
will be secured, and much valuable knowledge accumulated. Besides, a 
vastly better knowledge of reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and 
grammar will be acquired than on the starvation plan. The mind grows 
on what it assimilates. 



THE PROGRAMME IN UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 261 

small, and one of the other divisions not represented, you 
can arrange the programme to hear both classes. In all 
other subjects, you can readily manage the D's in one class. 
In the absence of Kindergarten, the ingenious teacher will 
manage to provide congenial work for the little ones. 

II. Division. — The pupils of this grade may be 
classed together in all branches. In language, the D and 
C divisions have a combined recitation, or a pupil-teacher 
conducts these classes on alternate days under your di- 
rection. 

III. A and B Divisions. — The average school will 
have less than ten pupils in each division. The manage- 
ment is not difficult even with double this number. Sev- 
eral plans are in use to economize time and effort. 

1. The Combination Plan. Take arithmetic : while 
the A's solve the problems, the B's are drilled orally ; the 
alternations may take place several times during the reci- 
tation ; the divisions review together. In other subjects 
these divisions may recite together, as one division may 
do written work while the other is drilled orally. I 
have found the combination plan very satisfactory when 
in skillful hands. 

2. The Alternation Plan. On this plan the A and 
B divisions recite on alternate days. In some subjects 
this will answer, but it seldom gives satisfaction in arith- 
metic, grammar, or geography. In these branches there 
seems to be a necessity for daily recitations. Some teach- 
ers get good results by having oral and written recita- 
tions on alternate days. 

3. Shortening the Recitations. This will give each 
division fifteen minutes. This plan is a serious educa- 
tional waste. The time is too short for thorough work 
with this grade of pupils. The teacher squanders his 



262 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

energies. The combination plan almost doubles his effi- 
ciency. 

4. Pupil-Teacher Plan. On alternate days the reci- 
tations are conducted by pupil-teachers. If you have 
one or more exceptionally good pupil-teachers, this is an 
admirable plan ; otherwise it will not give satisfaction. 

5. Class-Leader Plan. You appoint a member of 
each class as class-leader. While you are engaged with 
the A's, the class-leader, under your direction, will have 
charge of the B's. This is one of the best devices to 
meet the difficulty under consideration known to the pro- 
fession ; but great discretion is necessary in its use. 

6. United Recitations. In penmanship, drawing, 
vocal music, reading, spelling, etymology, and much of 
the oral work, the A and B divisions are worked as one 
class. There are disadvantages, but no better plan is pos- 
sible in large ungraded schools. The ingenious teacher will 
use such expedients as are deemed best under the circum- 
stances. In small schools, the programme may be so 
adjusted as to give each division full time ; but, unfor- 
tunately, this gives too many long recitations, and hence 
wearies the C and D divisions. 

IV. Study. — The A and B divisions will be stimu- 
lated to do considerable reading and some studying at 
home. Provision is made, however, for studying all les- 
sons during school hours. In elementary schools much 
studying out of school hours is neither desirable nor prac- 
ticable. For the most part, the school work can and 
should be done during the school day. 

V. Classification and Pkomotion. — The pupil 
after being tested is placed in his proper division. In- 
dividuals are promoted whenever qualified. Grades are 
promoted annually, and divisions biennially. When once 



THE PROGRAMME IN UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 263 

a school is classified, the management in this respect is 
not difficult. 

VI. The Oeal Wokk. — One hour daily is devoted to 
oral work. The management may be varied without 
limit. The object is to secure systematic work. The 
intelligent teacher will study to do the best for his pupils. 
I have found decided advantages in devoting the last 
hour to this work, as the oral work furnishes subject 
matter for the language lesson during the first hour of 
the following day. The interest accumulates throughout 
the day, and culminates in the oral work. 

VII. Advantages of the Ideal Programme. — The 
ideal programme is the outgrowth of the new education, 
and is the product of the thought and experience of edu- 
cators. Attention is invited to some of its features. 

1. The Ideal Programme is Artistic. Teaching is 
the art of human development. The teacher is an art- 
ist. As the means of culture, he commands the entire 
circle of science. The ideal programme gives his plan of 
work. It may be infinitely varied, to meet all possible 
circumstances ; but the essential features remain, giving 
completeness and harmony to the work of the ungraded 
school. Thus school management becomes an art. 

2. The Ideal Programme is eminently Practical. In 
some form it is now successfully used by the best teachers 
in all the States. The results are most gratifying, quad- 
rupling the efficiency of the schools. Every teacher 
qualified to take charge of an ungraded school may safely 
adopt and adapt it. Eote teachers, machine teachers, 
and all other unpractical and incompetent teachers, are 
cautioned to let the ideal programme alone. Such per- 
sons can not comprehend it, adapt it, or use it. It is de- 
signed for teachers, not for mere school-keepers. 



264 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

3. The Ideal Programme is Progressive. Like the 
course of study, it aims to represent the most advanced 
thought of the living present. While it may be regarded 
as in advance of many teachers and many schools, it is 
hoped that it will help to lead the great forward educa- 
tional movement. With such a programme there can be 
no standing still. The teacher must move up or move 
out. 

4. The Ideal Programme is Algebraic. It may be 
adapted to any school. Don't mistake. It is not arith- 
metical ; it will not suit your school. You have brains ; 
the general principles are given ; you know the peculiar 
wants of your school ; it is your business to find the value 
of x. 

5. The Ideal Programme is singularly Simple. It 
could hardly be more so. Everything complex has been 
eliminated. It is eminently adapted to the average coun- 
try school. 

6. The Ideal Programme Systematizes the Oral Work. 
This is its crowning merit. It furnishes the pupils real 
mind-food in place of the dry husks of the old education. 
More, it necessitates the employment of genuine teachers. 
More, it compels unflagging effort and constant growth 
on the part of the teacher. 

7. The Solution of the Country-School Problem. 
Having worked on the ungraded-school problem for more 
than a quarter of a century, it gives me pleasure to sub- 
mit to school-boards and my fellow teachers, as at least 
a partial solution, a practical course of study, and a prac- 
tical programme. 

Antiquated Programmes. — " One at a time ; first 
come, recite first," was the unwritten programme of the 
old schoolmaster. " School began at sun-up and closed 



THE PROGRAMME IN UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 265 

at sun-down." From this chaos the history of the evo- 
lution in our school work is most interesting. Among 
'the crude attempts to construct programmes, the anti- 
quary will find many curious relics. 

1. " One teacher heard 125 classes recite each day ! " 

2. Another teacher made the time of recitation uni- 
form, giving five minutes to each class ! 

3. A smart teacher made recitations long when inter- 
esting and short when dull ! Classes crowded out " took 
their chances " next day ! 

Specimens of the antiquated programme may still be 
found in some remote districts of most counties. The 
curious can explore and excavate for themselves. 

Programme for Small Schools. — Many a teacher 
fails in a small school who would succeed well in a larger 
one. A close classification is necessary. Individuals in 
small schools are treated as classes are in large ones. 
The teacher becomes a private tutor. The interest cen- 
ters in individual pupils. A school of ten will occupy 
the entire time and energies of the best teacher. As each 
programme must be widely different from all others, it 
would be folly to publish a programme for this class of 
schools. A teacher who is qualified to take charge of a 
small school will know how to construct a programme. 
The secret of success is in taking an absorbing interest 
in each pupil, and in devoting one's entire time to indi- 
vidual instruction. 

Programmes for Graded Schools. — These are far 
less difficult to construct than programmes for ungraded 
schools. Fewer subjects and fewer classes for each teacher 
simplify the problem. Besides, an experienced principal 
directs the work. Still, the programmes used in most 
small graded schools are susceptible of decided improve- 
-.n [See page 273.] 



266 



COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 





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THE PROGRAMME IN UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



267 



EXPLANATIONS.* 

This programme proposes that the common school be graded into four 
divisions, called D, C, B, A — A being the highest. The Pleasant Work 
put down for the D class may consist of some of the gifts of Kindergar- 
ten. Nos. 8 (the connected slat), 9 (slat-interlacing), and 10 (stick-laying), 
paper-cutting, paper-folding, and paper-intertwining seem available aud 
profitable. Desk work in numbers means copying and solving examples 
planned on the Grube method, or something similar. Let the teacher 
present the requisite number of examples on the blackboard from day 
to day. 

It is planned that the A class will prepare the arithmetic lessons at 
home, and others if necessary. 

The subjects that may be taken up in general exercises are many. 
The following schedule presents the use of five for the first month. 
It is best to keep one subject before the attention at least two days. 



Subjects. 


1st and 3d Weeks. 


2d and 4th Weeks. 


M. 


T. 


W. 


Th. 


F. 


m. 


T. 


W. 


Th. 


F. 




1 


1 




















1 


1 


1 


1 


"l 


"l ' 


1 


1 














































For the second month substitute one of the following subjects : Color, 
Animals, Easy Experiments in Natural Philosophy, Great Orators, The 
Ocean. For the third month : Object Lessons, Easy Experiments in 
Chemistry, Great Artists, Ancient Cities, The Clouds. For the fourth 
month : Common Things, Great Inventions, How Iron and Steel are made, 
Great Battles, Great Political Events. Other subjects can be used. Let 
teachers who can, take twice the time and half the topics. Untrained 
teachers will be apt to shun the Ideal Programme. 



* One of our most efficient educators, President J. C. Gilchrist, of the State Nor- 
mal School, Cedar Falls, Iowa, after seeing it thoroughly tested in many schools, kindly 
presents his programme, with the explanations, for publication in this work. It dif- 
fers from mine chiefly in the management of the recesses, the advanced classes, and 
the oral work. In schools where no oral work has been done, these general exercises 
will answer for a year or two. For the 6ake of uniformity I have changed the letters 
indicating the divisions. 



268 



PHELPS'S IDEAL PROGRAMME 



.Recitations. 


Time-Table. 




Division D. 
First and Second Tears. 


Roll Call 


8.55 to 8.58— 3 m. 
8.58 to 9.05— 1 m. 
9.05 to 9.15— 10 m. 
9.15 to 9.30— 15 m. 
9.30 to 9.45— 15 m. 
9.45 to 10.15— 30 m. 
10.15 to 10.30—15 m. 




Opening Exercises.. . . 






C. Reading 


Print Words 




Write Reading Lesson . . 




Use Construction Blocks. 



10.30 to 10.40—10 m. 



General Exercises. 
D. Numbers 

C. Arithmetic . . . 
B. Arithmetic . . . 
A. Reading 

D. Spelling 



10.40 to 10.50— 10 m. 
10.50 to 11.00— 10 m. 
11.00 to 11.15— 15 m. 
11.15 to 11.35— 20 m. 
11.35 to 11.55— 20 m. 
11.55 to 12.00— 5 m. 



Reading 

Construction Blocks. . . 
Write Spelling Lesson. 



12.00 to 12.57—57 m. 



Roll Call 

Singing 

D. Reading 

C. Reading 

B. Reading 

A. Grammar .... 

B. Geography . . . 
A, B, and C. Pen. 



12.5V to 
1.00 to 
1.05 to 
1.15 to 
1.30 to 
1.45 to 
2.10 to 
2.25 to 



1.00— 3 m. 
1.05— 5 m. 
1.15— 10 m. 
1.30—15 m. 
1.45—15 m. 
2.10—25 m. 
2.25—15 m. 
2.40—15 m. 



Write Number Lesson. 

Print Words 

Construction Blocks . . . 

Reading 

Recess 



2.40 to 2.55—15 m. 



C. Geography 

B. Language Lesson. 

D. Spelling 

A. History 

C. Spelling 



2.55 to 3.10— 15 m. 

3.10 to 3.30— 15 m. 

3.30 to 3.35— 5 m. 

3.35 to 3.55— 20 m. 

3.55 to 4.00— 5 m. 



Copy Forms. . . . 
Write on Board 



Dismiss 



FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 



269 



Study. 


Division 0. 

Third and Fourth 

Tears. 


Division B. 
Fifth and Sixth Tears. 


Division A. 
Seventh and Eighth 
Tears. 


















Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 










Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 


Blackboard Drawi'g 










General Recess. 










Arithmetic 


Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading. 




Arithmetic 


Geography '. 






Geography 






Grammar. 






Noon. 














Reading 


Reading 


Grammar. 
Grammar. 
Grammar. 




Reading 


Geography 










History. 












General Recess. 




Language Lesson 


History. 
History. 
History. 




Spelling 


Geography 




Geography 




Reading 


mar. 









270 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 



EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

This programme * is constructed to suit our country schools as now- 
organized. 

" 1. It embodies all the essential facts of the rural district school. 
Having been in the business, we can speak intelligently and somewhat 
pathetically of the actual situation. If such a programme be not adapted 
in all material respects to a country school, then it is the business of the 
teacher of that school to bring it up to the conditions of the programme as 
speedily as possible. Lacking in the ability to do so, he should attend 
vigorously to the personal and professional equation until he can make 
his side of it equal to the emergency. 

" 2. No programme can be made for any one school, which will exactly 
suit the circumstances of every other or perhaps of any other school. No 
two teachers are, can be, or ought to be exactly alike in all their details. 
As to class of pupils, character of teachers, organization and manage- 
ment, schools necessarily differ. Hence, is it cither to be expected or 
desired that the same programme, in all its details as to studies, time- 
table, order of exercises, and other particulars, should be exactly fitted 
to all circumstances ? We think not. On the other hand, we think that 
above all things teachers of country schools, as of all other schools, need 
to cultivate and to exercise that common sense which largely consists in 
the power of adapting one's self to varying conditions and circumstances. 

" 3. The teacher of every school should make himself master of the sit- 
uation, instead of allowing the situation to master him. In respect to 
their scholarship, gradation, and the like, it is self-evident that all coun- 
try schools must be somewhere between the primary and the high school. 
This being the case, they must be susceptible of some sort of classifica- 
tion approximating that of the city schools ; and in the hands of earnest, 
determined, skillful, and industrious teachers, that approximation can be 
realized in practice. It is true there are difficulties to be surmounted ; 
but for what is a teacher licensed and employed if not to wrestle with 
difficulties ? 

" 4. If this programme should be studied, if the principles embodied in 
it be mastered, and its provisions, under suitable modifications in particu- 
lar cases, be enforced in every country school in the land, we hesitate not 
to say that the value of these schools would be increased tenfold. 

" 6. We hear too much said against theories. All practice, whether in 
the teacher's profession or any other profession, that does not rest upon 
a true theory (another name for sound principles and immutable laws), is 
simply quackery. He alone who masters these principles and grasps 
these laws is fitted to devise wise methods and successful systems of 
practice in any department." 

* Developed under the direction of that great educator, President W. F. Phelps, 
of the Winona (Minnesota) State Normal School, and published, with the explanations, 
in the " Educational Weekly," Chicago. 



THE PROGRAMME IN UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 271 







MICHIGAN PE06EAMME 


FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 






D Division. 


C Division. 


B Division. 


A Division. 






Third and 


Fifth and 


Seventh 






First 


Second 


Fourth 


Sixth 


and Eighth 






Year. 


Yeae. 


Years. 


Years. 


Years. 


A. M. MIN. 












9.00! 5 


Opening. 










9.05' 10 


Reading. 


Beading. 


Arithmetic. 


Arithmetic. 


Arithmetic. 


9.15! 15 


Printing. 


Beading. 


Arithmetic. 


Arithmetic. 


Arithmetic. 


9.30 20 


Printing. 


Slate-writing. 


Arithmetic. 


Arithmetic. 


Arithmetic. 


9.50 20 


Numbers. 


Numbers. 


Arithmetic. 


Arithmetic. 


Arithmetic. 


10. 10 20 


Numbers. 


Numbers. 


Geography. 


Geography. 


AHthmetic. 


10 . 30 j 15 


Recess. 










10.45; 15 


Numbers. 


Numbers. 


Geography. 


Geography. 


Geography. 


11.00 20 


Drawing. 


Drawing. 


Geography. 


Geography. 


Geography. 


11.20' 20 


Writing. 


Drawing. 


Geography. 


Geography. 


Geography. 


11.40 


20 


Spelling. 


Beading. 


Arithmetic. 


Arithmetic. 


Geography. 


P. M. 

1.00 


20 


Heading. 


Beading. 


Beading. 


Reading. 


History. 


1.201 20 


Beading. 


Beading. 


Beading. 


Beading. 


Grammar. 


1.40J 10 


Beading. 


Beading. 


Beading. 


Reading. 


Grammar. 


1.50! 10 


Printing. 


Beading. 


Beading. 


Grammar. 


Grammar. 


2.00! 15 


Beading. 


Beading. 


Reading. 


Grammar. 


Grammar. 


2.15 15 


Writing. 


Writing. 


Writing. 


Writing. 


Writing. 


2.30! 15 


B EC ESS. 










2.451 20 


Spelling. 


Spelling. 


Spelling. 


Grammar. 


Grammar. 


3.05 20 


Spelling. 


Spelling. 


Spelling. 


Grammar. 


Spelling. 


3.25| 5 


Spelling. 


Spelling. 


Spelling;. 


Spelling. 


Spelling. 


3.30! 10 


Copying. 


Spelling. 


Spelling, 


Spelling. 


Spelling. 


3.40 10 


Copying 


Copying. 


Copying. 


Spelling. 


Spelling. 


3.50 10 


Oral Lessons. 


Oral Lessons. 


Oral Lessons. 


Oral Lessons. 


Oral Lessons. 



EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

" The italic type indicates recitations ; the common type the time when classes 
should study particular subjects. The study programme is of as much importance 
as the recitation. Teach children to study. 

" In the construction of the permanent programme the necessary number and size 
of the classes should be considered ; the alternation of study and recitation ; the time 
required for study in different grades and in different branches ; the length of recita- 
tions, both in the grades and branches; the hours when lessons should be studied as 
well as recited ; and recesses and dismissions. From the number of minutes in the 
Bchool day subtract the number devoted to opening- exercises and recesses; the re- 
mainder will be the time that can be given to class exercises. Determine the neces- 
sary number of class exercises, divide the time at command by the number of class 
exercises, and the quotient will be the average number of minutes that may be given 
to each exercise; the time of the more important classes may be increased by short- 
ening the time of the less important. The programme should be constantly before 
the school, and strictly followed." 

The above programme was prepared by a committee of leading educators in 1879. 
With many commendable features, this programme is susceptible of decided improve- 
ment. The advanced recitations are too short. The oral work is substantially ruled 
out. 



272 



COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 



NEW YORK TRANSITION PROGRAMME FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 

Many schools are in the transition stage. The old education is pass- 
ing away, but educational errors die hard. The following programme, 
one of the best of its class, marks the transition from the old education 
to the new. Here we find thought and svstem. 



Time. 


Division. 


Exercises. | 


Time. 


Division. 


Exercises. 


9.00 




Opening exercises. 


1.00 


D 


Reading and spelling. 


9.10 


i> 


Reading and spelling. 


1.10 


C 


Language lessons. 


9.20 


c 


Arithmetic. 


1.25 


B 


Language lessons. 


9.35 


B 


Arithmetic. 


1.45 


A 


Grammar. 


9.55 


A 


Arithmetic. 


2.10 


1 


General exercises. 


10.20 


D 


Numbers. 


-- 1 


Writing and drawing 


10.30 




General recess. 


2.80 




Recess 


10.45 


i> 


Object lessons. 


2.45 


D 


Language lessons. 


10.55 


c 


Primary geography. 


2.55 


C 


Reading and spelling. 


11.10 


B 


Geography. 


3.10 


B 


Reading and spelling. 


11.30 


A 


History. 


3.30 


A 


Reading and spelling. 


11.55 




General exercises. 


3.55 




General exercises. 


12.00 




One hour's recess. 









EXPLANATIONS. 

The teacher should have definite ideas as to what studies the child should pursue, 
and how much time should be given to each. 
D Division (age 6 to S) to have 5 recitations of 10 m. each = 50 m. 
Studies. — Language — First Reader, spelling. 

Mathematics — Concrete numbers, fundamental processes. 

Science — Elementary object lessons and geography. 

Art — Drawing, printing, writing, singing. 
C Division (age 8 to 10) to have 4 recitations of 15 m. each — 60 m. 
Studies. — Language — Second Reader, language lessons, composition. 

Mathematics — Primary arithmetic, oral and written. 

Science — Object lessons, primary geography. 

Art — Drawing, writing, singing. 
B Division (age 10 to 12) to have 4 recitations of 2D m. each = 80 m. 
Studies.— Language— Third Reader, language lessons, composition, written spelling. 

Mathematics — Arithmetic, oral and written. 

Science — Descriptive geography. 

Art — Drawing, writing, music. 
A Division (age 12 to 14) to have 4 recitations of 25 in. each — 100 m. 
Studies. — Language — Fourth Reader, grammar. 

Mathematics — Arithmetic, algebra. 

Science — History, civil government, physiology, natural philosophy. 

Art — Drawing, music. 
This programme is now (18S0) used in Venango County, N. Y. 



THE PROGRAMME IN UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 273 

ments ; the general principles referring to programmes 
apply equally to graded and ungraded schools. One 
thing needs to be well understood : Programmes mid 
courses of study can never be stereotyped. 

Value of a Good Programme. — The advantages of 
a well-digested and wisely adapted programme can not 
easily be overestimated. Such a programme, persist- 
ently followed, will secure — 

1. Regular Study. Pupils are trained to study sys- 
tematically. 

2. Right Habits. Such habits are formed by doing 
the right thing at the right time, and in the right way. 

3. Tenacity. Pupils learn to suppress whims and work 
to a plan. The will is cultivated. Tenacity of purpose 
is developed. 

4 Well-directed Effort. The efforts of teachers and 
pupils are well timed. No time is wasted. Development 
is the result. The value of the school is increased ten- 
fold. 

5. Perpetual Organization. The school need not be 
disorganized by a change of teachers ; the new teacher 
will be enabled to begin where his predecessor left off. 
Incalculable benefit results. The stone is kept rolling. 
The pupils steadily advance. System tells. 

6. Educated and Systematic Teachers. Teachers are 
compelled to work to a plan. Systematic study will fit 
for systematic teaching. Teachers will steadily grow, 
and will become grand men and women. 

7. Better Supervision. By requiring a programme for 
the term and a report for each month from every teacher, 
the County Superintendent can know the condition of 
each school. He may well consider a teacher disquali- 
fied who can not make out and carry out the ideal pro- 



274 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

gramme. The superintendent will thus be prepared to 
bestow his labors where most needed, vastly increasing his 
efficiency. 

No other measure can accomplish so much good for 
the country school as the embodiment of a good course 
of study in well-arranged programmes. 



CHAPTER VI. 

POSITION AND WORK OF THE HIGH SCHOOL. 

Sixty centuries were necessary to prepare our race for 
the work of popular education, and to give all civilized 
nations the elementary school. The next great forward 
movement will make the high school coextensive with 
the elementary school. 

I. Connecting Link. — The high school is the con- 
necting link in our educational system. Without the high 
school, we have fragments, but not a school system. The 
elementary school prepares the pupils for the high school, 
as the high school prepares them for the college. The 
college preparatory is an unfortunate expedient, and for 
that reason has been abolished by our best institutions. 
Academies and seminaries do excellent service, but are 
as drops to the ocean. We find everywhere brave young 
people thirsting for education. Good public high schools 
in every community will enable such to move upward, 
and will give us ten college students where we now have 
one. The high school will connect the elementary school 
and the college, and thus perfect our great educational 
highway. Public high schools, and good secondary pri- 



POSITION AND WORK OF THE HIGH SCHOOL. 275 



COURSE OF STUDY TOE HIGH SCHOOLS. 



ClECLE 
OF 

Science. 


Studies. 


First 
Yeae. 


Second 

Year. 


Third 
Year. 


Fourth 
Yeajj. 


Terms, j Terms. 


Terms. 


Terms. 


1. 


2. 1. 


2. 


1. 1 2. 


1. j 2. 


Inorganic 
World. 




i 


* 






i 






\ 


i 














1 


1 


1 




1 










...j... 






















Organic 
World. 




i 


\ 














1 


















1 














i 


* 


i 




1 






j 


















Thought 
World. 


Rhetoric and Composition . 


l 














1 














i 


i 
















X 

4, 


I 


i 

1 


i 














1 








Beauty 
World. 






* t... 

! * 


# 


* 
* 


* 


* 
* 


* 
* 


Elocution 


* 




* 








* 

* 




i * - 


* 


* 
* 


Duty 
World. 






* 






i 


















. 





Action 
World. 




l 










i 










j 






i 


i 














1 
















1 


1 * 






























276 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

vate schools, within the reach of all, are among our 
greatest educational needs. 

II. Educational Work of the High School. 

1. Development. The prominent work of the high 
school is to develop manhood and womanhood. The ele- 
mentary school lays the foundation and gives the rudi- 
ments of an education ; the superstructure is erected in 
the high school, in the college, in the university, and in 
practical life. 

2. High-School Period. Up to the age of fourteen, both 
for physical and psychical reasons, continuous hard study 
can not be required ; but from fourteen to eighteen, the 
high-school period, study is grateful and invigorating. A 
youth may study hard, amass and digest vast stores of 
knowledge, and yet continually grow stronger, physically 
as well as mentally. 

3. High-School Processes. The educational processes 
in the district school are preeminently objective, syn- 
thetic, inductive, and experimental ; in the high school 
the processes are subjective as well as objective, analytic 
as well as synthetic, deductive as well as inductive, and 
philosophical as well as experimental. 

4. Preparation for Practical Life. In the high school 
a broad and deep foundation is laid for future achieve- 
ment. Here the pupil attains to a good degree of culture 
and scholarship. He is now in command of all his powers, 
and is prepared for a successful career in life. Happy the 
student who goes up higher, and in the college explores 
the grandest phases of science. In the college, thought 
becomes philosophical and far-reaching. The student 
successfully grapples with the most sublime problems, 
and reaches higher and still higher generalizations. A 
man educated in a district school may do well, but in prac- 



POSITION AND WORK OF THE HIGH SCHOOL. £77 

tical life he is no match for the high-school graduate ; 
nor can the high-school graduate compete successfully 
with the college graduate, or the college graduate with the 
university graduate. In all the fields of human achieve- 
ment, men and women of culture, other things being 
equal, have immensely the advantage. 

III. Circle of Science in the High School. — In 
the high school the circle widens. Knowledge is sys- 
tematized — becomes scientific. Eesearch is at once more 
minute and more general. As in the district school, the 
entire circle is touched continually. 

1. Inorganic World. 

(1.) Mathematics. The first year is devoted to alge- 
bra, and the second year to geometry. Algebra is com- 
pleted, and arithmetic, algebra, and geometry are reviewed 
and compared, during the first half of the third year. 
Trigonometry is studied during the first half of the fourth 
year. 

(2. ) Physics. A year is devoted to elementary physics 
and elementary chemistry. The high school should be 
rich in simple, inexpensive apparatus for illustrating these 
branches. As far as possible, the pupils should be trained 
to use the apparatus and make the experiments. Mere 
theory and dry book-work will not suffice to wrest the se- 
crets from nature. Experiment must be made the basis 
of theory. Whatever is attempted should be mastered. 

2. Organic World. 

(1.) Physical Geography. The earth is now studied 
as a cosmic organism ; studied in its relations to animal 
and vegetable life ; studied as the home of man. De- 
scriptive geography is thoroughly reviewed and kept fresh 
by constant use in connection with physical geography, 
history, and literature. 



278 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

(2.) Anatomy and Physiology, Human and Compar- 
ative. Half a year is devoted to the study of human 
and comparative anatomy and physiology. Charts and a 
skeleton are the essential means of illustration. A mani- 
kin is extremely valuable. Eubber and plaster casts are 
admirable helps. Here, as elsewhere, the demon of ex- 
clusive book-work and of unimportant details must be 
exorcised. 

(3.) Botany and Zoology. The third year is devoted 
to these sciences. In order to secure specimens for illus- 
tration, botany is studied" during the fall and spring. 
Zoology can be studied advantageously during the winter 
months. The extended experience accumulated in the 
elementary school renders less objective work necessary. 

(4.) Geology and Descriptive Astronomy. A year is 
devoted to these sciences. Both subjects are studied 
from the standpoint of nature. The earth and the starry 
heavens are made the basis of each step. Personal ob- 
servation enables the learners to understand the book and 
to profit by the instruction of the teacher. 

3. Thought World. The thinker, the thought, and 
the expression of thought merit a prominent place in the 
high-school course. 

(1.) Theoretic Grammar. The learner is now pre- 
pared to understand theoretic grammar. 

(2.) Rhetoric and Composition, respectively the art 
and science of effective expression, and the art of correct 
expression, engage special attention during the first year. 
Theoretic grammar is continued in connection with this 
subject. Rhetoric, though usually classed under aesthetics 
as a high-school study, belongs here. The expression of 
thought, rather than the beauty element, predominates. 
Composition continues to receive marked attention. 



POSITION AND WORK OF THE HIGH SCHOOL. 279 

(3. ) English Literature follows rhetoric, and occupies 
the second year. As to the beauty element involved, this 
subject belongs to aesthetics ; as to the history element, it 
belongs to the action world ; but, as studied in the high 
school, thought and its expression are the principal ele- 
ments considered, and hence it is classed in this depart- 
ment. The works of tAvo or three authors are carefully 
studied. 

(4.) Latin, from the philological standpoint, should 
be thoroughly taught during the third and fourth years. 
The practical value of Latin, when properly taught, is 
very great, and it certainly deserves a place in the high- 
school course, because — 

a. The study of Latin gives a culture not otherwise 
easily attained ; 

b. The preparatory Latin is needed to fit the student 
to enter college ; 

c. The practical value of Latin when well taught is 
considerable. 

(5.) Greek is remanded to the colleges. It has no 
place in the high-school course. Many colleges have rec- 
ognized this fact. 

(6. ) Modern Languages. I do not see how the modern 
languages can be taught in our elementary or high schools 
without overcrowding the course of study. While ad- 
mitting their value, I am thoroughly satisfied that they 
belong to the higher education and not to the lower. 
The study of our own language and literature certainly 
deserves the first place in the elementary and high-school 
courses of study. President Elliot, of Harvard, says : 

" I may as well abruptly avow, as the result of my reading 
and observation in the matter of education, tbatl recognize but one 
mental acquisition as an essential part of the education of a lady 



280 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

or gentleman, namely, an accurate and refined use of the mother 
tongue." 

(7.) Elementary Psychology. Psychology is now suc- 
cessfully taught in many high schools and in all normal 
schools. The value of psychology is unquestioned. 
With suitable text-books and suitable methods, it may be 
made intensely interesting. Speculative and compara- 
tive psychology belong to the college course, but the 
facts of elementary psychology should be mastered in 
the high school. The omission of psychology from the 
high-school course is inexcusable. 

4. Beauty World. 

(1.) Elocution and Rhetorical Exercises alternate 
throughout the course. Elocution is studied as a science 
and practiced as an art. The choicest literature is read 
and recited, and composition is made a specialty. 

(2. ) Vocal Music and Drawing also alternate through- 
out the course. 

(3.) Art Criticism. Even a brief course will be of 
great value. Occasional lectures do much to cultivate 
taste, and give the pupils a glance into the art world. 
Art collections are now within the reach of all high 
schools. 

5. Duty World. 

(1.) Ethics, the science of duty, is studied during the 
last half year. The teacher may present the leading fea- 
tures of natural theology in common with ethics. 

(2. ) Manners and Morals. All are trained incident- 
ally, but persistently, to habits of right conduct. Pupils, 
during this transition period, need every safeguard as 
well as every incentive to right. These formative years 
determine the weal or woe of most persons. The world's 
greatest benefactors are teachers with pure and noble 



POSITION AND WORK OF THE HIGH SCHOOL. 281 

impulses, and endowed with the power to direct, to mold, 
to build, and to establish. 

6. Action World. 

(1.) English and French History engage attention 
during the first year. The relations of English, French, 
and American history are carefully considered, and United 
States history is reviewed. 

(2.) General History occupies the second year. A 
broad foundation is laid for future reading, and leading 
facts of history are made a part of the permanent furni- 
ture of the mind. 

(3.) Civil Government and Political Economy are 
taught during the third year. The work is necessarily 
rudimentary. Lectures on sociology may be given dur- 
ing the last year. 

IV. Village and Central High Schools. — We 
must have high schools within the reach of all. Young 
people can go two, three, four, or even five miles to attend 
the high school. In connection with every village graded 
school there should be a high school, free to the high- 
school district. In thickly settled rural districts cen- 
tral high schools must be established. The masses must 
be educated at home, or never educated. The high 
school saves vast sums, and also keeps our youth under 
parental control during this critical period of life. 

V. Establishment and Growth. — In villages and 
rural districts the high school is a growth. For some time, 
but one or two years of the course should be attempted. 
As the numbers increase and the pupils advance, the 
course should be extended. Usually the full course may 
be reached within four or five years. "We must be con- 
tent to move slowly, in order to move surely. Thorough 
work and steady advancement is the wise plan. 



282 COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMMES. 

VI. The two Plans for sustaining Secondary 
Schools. — The elementary school is an established fact. 
ISTo sane man now questions the right or the duty of the 
State to sustain elementary schools. But elementary 
schools do not fully meet the demands of our civiliza- 
tion. The masses begin to demand facilities for a higher 
culture. Two ways of meeting this demand are proposed : 

1. The Work may be left to Private and Church Enter- 
prise. The dependence may be placed in private high 
schools, academies, seminaries, and college preparatories. 
To this plan there are many objections : it is costly ; it 
makes the high school accessible only to the few ; it 
breeds clannishness ; it renders system impossible. His- 
tory shows that this plan absolutely excludes the masses, 
and hence fails to meet the demands of popular educa- 
tion. 

2. Tlie State may provide for Public High Schools. 
These can be placed within the reach of all the people, 
and thus the high school will be made as free and common 
as the elementary school. 

While we highly prize the private school work, and feel a 
sincere cordiality toward all good instruction everywhere, we still 
think, with President Bascoin, that a system of public high 
schools commends itself " by the immediateness, sufficiency, and 
economy of its work ; by the harmony under it, and the con- 
sequent strength it will give to all departments of education ; by 
the unity of the national life which it expresses and nourishes ; 
by the increased breadth of popular thought which it promotes ; 
by the enlarged and patriotic impulses which it calls forth, crowd- 
ing back narrow incentives, and assigning the nation to its true 
position ; and by the wise, patient spirit with which it overcomes 
administrative difficulties, and unites all interests in one large and 
libei-al work." 

During the next quarter of a century, the great battle over 



POSITION AND WORK OF THE HIGH SCHOOL. 2S3 

this issue will continue to rage. All the foes of popular edu- 
cation will combine against this grand forward movement. For 
a while demagogues will join the ranks of the enemy. But the 
result is not doubtful. High schools will become coextensive 
with elementary schools. Our civilization demands it. It will 
pay. The highest good of our race demands it. Then will we 
have a grand educational highway, extending from the primary 
school to the university, and as free as the air we breathe to every 
youth in the land. 

VII. The Missing Link. — The high school is the 
missing link in our educational systems. The high school 
of the future will serve a threefold purpose : 

1. It will place the general culture demanded hy our 
civilization within the reach of all. 

2. The principal of the central high school will be 
principal of all the schools in the township ; and thus 
will he secured for the elementary schools of our rural 
districts superior professional direction. 

3. At the minimum cost and under the most favor- 
able circumstances, the high school will fit our aspiring 
youth for the college. 

It is the mission of the present generation to supply 
the missing link, and thus perfect our educational scheme. 

Caution. — It should be distinctly understood that the high- 
school course was constructed in view of the work planned for 
elementary schools. In case high-school classes have not taken 
the elementary work, it will be necessary to so change the course 
as to supply the deficiencies. This will be especially necessary in 
botany and zoology, and these studies should be pursued during 
the fall and spring. 



PART V. 



STUDY AND TEACHING. 



CHAPTER I.— Rules for Study. 

II. — Conditions for Study. 
III. — How to Study. 

IV. — Art of securing Attention and Study. 
V. — Work for the Little Ones. 
VI. — Objective Points in Education. 
VII. — Principles pertaining to the Science of Edu- 
cation and the Art of Teaching. 



PART FIFTH. 
STUDY A WD TEACHING. 



How may pupils be trained to study ? How may the 
teacher secure study ? How may the largest results he 
obtained from the efforts put forth ? How may such a 
desire for knowledge be created as will make of the pupil 
a lifelong student ? In the following chapters the at- 
tempt is made to answer these questions. Certainly no 
part of the art of school management is of greater im- 
portance. 



CHAPTER I. 

EULES FOE STUDY. 



Bettee study conditions, better learning. Whatever 
tends to secure effective study, tends to elevate the race. 
The following rules have proved of great value to many 
hundreds of students and teachers. 

I. Take a deep Inteeest in - what you Study. — Cold 
iron can not be welded. The indifferent student fails to 
weld the new and the old knowledge. Heat the iron, and 



288 STUDY AND TEACHING. 

a few strokes do the work. Interest is mental heat ; 
learning and memory are in proportion to the interest. 
A cold, slow, repulsive teacher is a dead failure. He 
who can not create and sustain a deep interest can not 
teach. The student who does not take an interest in 
his work does not learn. 

II. Give your Entire Attention to the Subject. 
— Attention is the condition of knowledge. But for the 
accumulated power of attention, learning and progress 
would be impossible. Close and continuous attention en- 
ables the pupil to master difficulties and retain results. 
As the rays of the sun, when concentrated by the burning- 
glass, produce combustion, so, when the energies of the 
soul are directed to a single point, the mind burns its way 
through all difficulties. Newton said : " The difference 
between myself and others is, chiefly, that I have acquired 
the power to concentrate my attention more completely, 
and to hold it longer on a subject, than most men.' 
Herein lies the secret of success. A giddy, inattentive 
pupil accomplishes little. A teacher may work mira- 
cles, but if he can not secure and hold the attention of 
his pupils, he can not teach. 

III. Study Systematically both as to Time and 
Method. — A programme sufficiently elastic to meet the 
various circumstances is needed. A well-arranged pro- 
gramme enables the student to accomplish double as much 
as he ordinarily will do without one. " In education," 
said Everett, "method is everything." The pupil who 
knows how to study, and wisely uses his time, can pre- 
pare his lesson better and in much less time than one 
who does not know how to study, or who lacks system. 
A teacher who is not systematic, or who can not train his 
pupils to system, has no business in the school-room. 



RULES FOR STUDY. 289 

IV. Master each Step as you go. — The child asks, 
" What is it ? " the boy or girl, " How is it ? " the youth, 
"Why is it ?" The child masters the objective phase of 
the subject, the boy the analytic, the youth the scien- 
tific, and the man the philosophic phase. While in 
hand, is the time to master the lesson. To go through 
a book once is sufficient. Let each lesson be a review of 
previous lessons. " Leave nothing unconquered behind." 
Teachers who hurry their pupils through the book, who 
crowd them through many and long lessons, do much to 
injure them. Study few subjects. Short lessons and 
long study will produce strong men and thorough scholars. 

V. Think Vigorously, Clearly, and Indepen- 
dently. — " Thinking makes the great man." The ninny 
dreams, leaving others to solve the problems and think 
out the lessons. In most classes may be found those put- 
ty-faced, soft-brained, indolent creatures, who do their 
best to prove Darwinism. Ability to think rapidly and 
effectively is the objective point in intellectual culture. 
Each lesson is studied and taught with this end in view. 
The honest, independent, and able thinker is the grand- 
est man that walks this earth. 

VI. Study to Know, not to Recite. — Studying to 
recite is one of the greatest evils connected with school 
life. In many schools the pupils who study to know are 
the exceptions. The lesson is recited glibly to-day, but 
forgotten to-morrow. Good marks are secured, but the 
child is not educated. Eight methods of teaching render 
such reciting impossible. The true teacher inspires the 
pupil with a love for knowledge. The subject is studied, 
and the book is used as an instrument. Instead of re- 
citing the facts, theories, etc., given in a book, the pupil 
tells what he thinks about what the book says. The 

13 



290 STUDY AND TEACHING. 

teacher and the pupils together work out wider, deeper, 
more accurate views of the subject than can he obtained 
from the text-books. Pupils thus taught never finish 
their education. 

VII. Use what you Learn. — Knowledge increases 
mental power. It is valuable for its own sake. Use 
keeps knowledge fresh. Think, write, talk. Connect 
books and nature. Connect past and present acquisitions. 
In whatever you engage, command and use your entire 
resources. The true teacher trains his pupils to use what 
they learn, by continually leading them to tell what they 
know. 

VIII. Duly mix Study, Eeceeation, and Eest. — 
Eecreation and rest are essential to physical vigor, and 
hence to effective study. Winship practiced gymnastics 
and lifting for an hour or two a day, until the weak boy 
became the strongest man in the world. Daniel Webster 
would concentrate his mighty powers for a time, then 
take recreation, and he became the intellectual giant of 
the age in which he lived. "Work while you work ; play 
while you play." Hard study hurts no one. The great- 
est thinkers are usually healthy. Man was made to 
think. 

To Teachees. — How can you benefit your pupils more than by 
teaching them one of these rules each week ? In eight weeks they 
will all be learned, and your pupils will be able to do more and 
vastly better work. You can illustrate the rules and train the 
learners to apply them. In all my school course I do not remem- 
ber receiving any instruction in the art of study. Half my ener- 
gies were wasted. From the heart I urge you to assiduously train 
your pupils how to study ; you have no duty more important. 



CONDITIONS OF STUDY. 291 

CHAPTER II. 

CONDITIONS OF STUDY. 

Cheerful, earnest, well-directed study is the key to 
scholarship and success. No feature of school manage- 
ment is more important than the art of securing effective 
study. 

I. Physical Conditions. — The body is the organ- 
ism through which the mind works, and hence must be 
kept healthy and vigorous. Pure air, suitable exercise, 
proper diet, cheerfulness, and abundant sleep are the phys- 
ical conditions of hard study. The stomach should be 
neither empty nor loaded ; the system should be neither 
excited nor relaxed ; the position should be neither un- 
comfortable nor sleep-inviting. Under such conditions, 
pupils will have clear heads and the power of physical 
and mental achievement and endurance. 

II. Surroundings. — The disciplined mind may work 
on through turmoil, but even philosophers seek solitude 
and stillness. Much more does the inexperienced pu- 
pil require the most favorable surroundings. The wise 
teacher manages to have a quiet school, to have com- 
munications made only through the teacher, to avoid all 
distractions ; he so arranges everything as to foster study. 
Parents should see that certain hours are made equally 
favorable for home reading and study. The pupil will 
soon learn to place himself under the most favorable con- 
ditions, and 

" In solitude to muse, to think, to conquer." 

III. Struggle or Perish Alone. — Each soul is an 
individual personality. Self-study and self-help develop 



292 STUDY AND TEACHING. 

individuality and power. Each pupil is trained to do 
his own work. He learns that "Heaven helps students 
who help themselves." During recitation and social in- 
tercourse, he gains what he can from others. During 
the hours of study, he suffers no one to hinder or assist. 
The habit of independent study grows into the habit of 
independent thinking and acting. 

IV. Programme for Study. — Comparatively short 
periods of study, with ever-increasing intensity, are best. 
I have found forty mintues the best average time for ad- 
vanced students, both for study and recitation. Intense 
study during periods of forty minutes, followed by a few 
minutes of real recreation, enables the student to accom- 
plish twice as much during a year as he can by drudging 
on through many weary hours. Lively recitations of forty 
minutes each, followed by short recesses, are also by far 
the most favorable for advancement. The younger the 
pupils, and the more intense the work, the shorter must 
be the periods of study and the longer the intervals of 
rest. The plan now adopted in many schools, of having 
a recess of ten minutes at the close of each hour, is based 
on a profound knowledge of child-nature. Effort must 
stop short of exhaustion. After rest, the mind readily 
grapples with the work of the hour. With renewed vigor 
and power, after each period of recreation, the pupil takes 
up again the problem. He works systematically, doing 
specific work at specific times. 

The youth who vigorously follows these directions will 
steadily increase in physical and mental power. 



HOW TO STUDY. 293 

CHAPTER III. 

HOW TO STUDY. 

Horace Geeelet was accustomed to say, " Any one 
can dig, but he is a wise man who knows what to dig, 
and when to dig, and how to dig." Any one can study, 
but he is a philosopher who knows what to study, and 
when to study, and how to study. 

The farmer, the mechanic, the artist, the scientist, 
and the teacher are entitled to start with the accumu- 
lated experience and achievements of the race. Thus only 
is progress possible. Surely the child is entitled to no 
less. To leave the young to grope their way, is to rob 
them of their best years. Wise parents guide the efforts 
of their little ones. Experienced and wise teachers should 
direct the activities of learners. 

The chief office of the teacher is to train pupils to 
right habits of study. He who knows how to study and 
has the will to study scarcely needs a teacher. He has 
learned how to search for truth and how to master sub- 
jects. He has gradually become self -helpful and indepen- 
dent of the teacher. He falls in love with knowledge, 
and esteems truth more than millions of gold. The pupil 
thus trained will be an earnest student through life. 
How may we educate our pupils to study ? How may we 
make them independent of ourselves ? 

I. Cleae Ideas of the Lessoh is the Fiest Step. 
— Experience and previous lessons furnish the basis. 
What is the general subject ? What are the relations of 
the lesson to previous lessons ? Whatever the lesson, the 
learner asks himself these questions. With the subject 
clearly before his mind, he goes to work. 



294 STUDY AND TEACHING. 

II. The Lesson is Eead Carefully. — This is done 
in order to get before the mind its general scope. The 
student reads the lesson slowly. Each word not under- 
stood is examined, and, if compound, analyzed. After 
thus reading the lesson, the student is prepared for its 
systematic study. 

III. The Mastery of the Leading Features of 
the Lesson is the Next Step. — Now begins hard study. 
Definitions, principles, divisions, and leading facts or state- 
ments are made a part of the pupil's self. He will not 
rest until he can correctly present and clearly illustrate 
the principal points. Committing and reciting defini- 
tions, principles, or statements, that convey no meaning 
to him, are monstrous errors. Only principles, definitions, 
and facts, thoroughly understood, should be treasured in 
memory. 

IV. The Student now devotes Himself to the 
Study of Details and Illustrations. — From particu- 
lars to generals, then from generals to particulars, is the 
true method of study. The student begins with the con- 
crete and works up to definitions, principles, and classi- 
fication ; reversing the process, he reduces generals to 
particulars, thus verifying his conclusions. He synthe- 
tizes and analyzes ; he induces, deduces, and reduces. 
He begins with intuitive knowledge, works up to gen- 
eralizations, and finally reduces all generalizations back 
to intuitive knowledge. At every step he has recourse 
to illustrations. Illustration is the great lever in study 
and teaching. To illustrate means to illuminate, to make 
clear. Illustrations remove mountains of darkness and 
difficulty. The unknown is expressed in terms of the 
known. New and abstract truths are reduced, by con- 
cretion and comparison, to the range of experience. The 



HOW TO STUDY. 295 

child and the philosopher pursue substantially the same 
course. 

Caution. — To envelop the pupil in a cloud of details is ruin- 
ous. The illustrations may be remembered, but the principles 
will be lost. Endless detail is the demon of school work. Let 
the student actually master the cardinal features of subjects, and 
he will grow strong, day by day, in valuable knowledge gained, 
and in power accumulated. On this point the majority of teachers 
need revolutionizing. Avoid the extremes. Neither husks nor 
skeletons suffice. Thoroughness is the mastery of principles and 
their application. It is not enough to demonstrate that the square 
described on the hypothenuse is equal to the sum of the squares 
of the other two sides. The student must be able to use this 
principle in the demonstration of other theorems, in the solution 
of problems, and in practical life. In all study and all teaching, 
theory and its application go hand in hand. Practical education, 
in the true sense, is the result. 

V. Helps ik Study. — If the mechanic needs tools, 
how much more does the student need books ! Books 
are guides as well as implements. To learn how to use 
books, is a most important part of an education. 

1. The Dictionary stands first. As soon as the pupil 
begins the Third Eeader, a small dictionary should be 
placed in his hands, and he should be trained to use it 
properly. The advanced student, at any sacrifice, must 
have for constant use an unabridged dictionary. With- 
out a dictionary, no lesson can be properly prepared. 
Whenever there is a doubt about the meaning, pronuncia- 
tion, or spelling of a word, the appeal is made to the 
dictionary. It should be the constant companion of 
teacher and pupil, as it is of the scholar. 

2. Other Text-Books for Reference are needed. Other 
authors may often open up new fields of thought, or pre- 



296 STUDY AND TEACHING. 

sent the topic from different standpoints. The student 
with two or three text-books on the same subject has 
decided advantages. 

3. Refer ence-Boolcs. A good encyclopedia is inval- 
uable. It enables the student to gain wider and deeper 
knowledge. He finds where information may be had, 
and learns how to gain it. The more of the works of 
great thinkers the student has at command, the better. 
These he consults as he does the dictionary, or as he asks 
the views of his companions. He learns to commune 
with the masters, and thus discovers the sources of infor- 
mation, and acquires the power of vigorous thought. 

4. Objective Helps. Agassiz would leave his pupils for 
days to gain what they could from objects. Afterward 
he would give instruction based on the student's own ob- 
servations. Great teachers seem to have uniformly pur- 
sued a somewhat similar course. This method is divine. 

< A pupil studies geology from the book ; when he comes 
to the rocks he has to begin again. Does his knowl- 
edge help or hinder ? The better plan is to begin with 
nature. Let the pupil make crude collections for geol- 
ogy, zoology, and botany ; he finds in these the keys to 
unlock the books. In geography, physics, and chemistry, 
let him construct, if necessary, simple apparatus to illus- 
trate the principles. In this way he forces the secrets 
from nature and from the books. One experiment made 
by the pupil himself is worth hundreds witnessed. 

VI. Outlines of the Subject. — After the subject 
has been carefully studied, the student prepares an out- 
line, showing the relations of the subdivisions, and also 
the relations which the subject discussed bears to other 
subjects. Outlines, properly used, are very valuable. 
1. The Outline gives Comprehensiveness. Having 



HOW TO STUDY. 297 

mastered the parts, the student now examines the subject 
as a whole. What are its latitude and longitude ? What 
are its boundaries ? What are the logical relations of the 
subdivisions ? The answers are embodied in the out- 
line. 

2. The Outline aids Memory. Ideas are associated 
in their logical relation. Any link in the outline sug- 
gests all the other parts. Students who lack system will 
be found deficient in memory. Teachers who leave sub- 
jects scattered in fragments need not expect their pupils 
to retain permanently the things taught. 

Caution. — Do not make a hobby of diagrams. Though of 
great value when properly used, outlines may become an incubus. 
Details precede summaries. The outline is used for review. The 
teacher who begins with the diagram shows that he has failed to 
grasp a fundamental principle in teaching ; he begins at the top 
to build the tower. 

VII. Study is Hakd Work. — Wendell Phillips, it is 
said, is considering the propriety of classing hard study 
as one of the "lost arts." School-books have been so sim- 
plified and diluted, teaching has been so largely degraded 
to the trade of feeding children with spoons, parents have 
become so fearful that hard study will ruin the health of 
their fragile darlings, that there doubtless is danger that 
hard study may become a lost art. Let every educator 
and every parent ponder the following facts : 

1. Hard Study is Healthy. Man was made to study. 
Great students have usually been long-lived and healthy. 
Proper food, plenty of sleep and exercise, and right 
habits will insure to the hard student vigorous health. 
Abominable diet, late hours, excessive novel-reading, dis- 
sipation, and lack of abundant open-air exercise — not 



298 STUDY AND TEACHING. 

hard study — are the causes of bad health among stu- 
dents. I have never known a student who obeyed hy- 
gienic laws to be injured by hard study. 

" Many, far too many, of our school girls and boys, are ill- 
fed or over-fed, and their stomachs, rather than their brains, are 
over-worked. Many, far too many of our girls, in school and 
out, are dressed in ways that invite sickness and disease, and 
their bodies suffer far more than their brains ; but jaded stom- 
achs, congested livers, and obstructed circulations make heavy, 
neuralgic heads, and study becomes a process attended with 
weariness and discomfort. Tight-waisted dresses, bare arms, 
gauzy stockings, and thin-soled shoes have far more to do with 
the death of many a bright, studious girl than brain exercise." 

2. Hard Study develops Manhood. Nothing else can 
take its place. Hard study is the royal road to manhood, 
as well as to geometry. The student must grapple with 
the problems and solve them for himself. This gives pluck 
and tenacity. It develops the feeling of mastery and in- 
dependence. 

3. Boohs, Teachers, a?id Schools are Means. The end 
is culture and manhood. Good teachers and good books 
stimulate and direct effort, but do not relieve the pupil 
from effort. All our improved educational instrumental- 
ities and methods simply increase the facilities for work- 
ing out our own educational salvation. " Thinking makes 
the great man." Hard study is the royal road to man- 
hood and success. 

4. Hard Study versus Amusement. " A life spent in practical 
education is the best means of exploding the foolish theories 
which make the staple of many treatises that assume to tell the 
teachers how to teach. The teacher's work is so practical that, 
when he does it best, he can hardly himself tell how he does it. 
I once thought I could make learning so entertaining that pupils 



ART OF SECURING ATTENTION AND STUDY. 299 

could be educated as an amusement. In this view I was fortified by 
Eousseau, Locke, and Pestalozzi. I have since learned that such 
an education, if it were possible, would be a miserable prepara- 
tion for the stern realities of life. "While the teacher should win 
the attention and sustain the interest, he should keep in mind that 
amusement in education holds about the same ratio to toil that a 
lady's jewelry does to her substantial dress." (Prof. F. T. Kempee.) 

5. Hard Study must be Encouraged. Oral teaching 
must be made to stimulate and direct effort, not displace 
it. Transparent and well-arranged books must be made 
to aid in the acquisition of real knowledge. Time must 
not be wasted in solving puzzles and answering conun- 
drums. Parents and teachers must encourage hard study. 
Only thus can we educate a race of brave, strong, inde- 
pendent men and women. 



CHAPTER IV. 

AET OF SECURING ATTENTION AND STUDY. 

Attention is the power of the mind to direct its 
own activities. It is the concentration of the mental 
energies upon one thing at a time. The art of teaching 
is based on the art of securing and holding the attention 
of the learner, and thus developing the habit of atten- 
tion. 

I. Educational Importance of Attention. 

1. Attention is the Condition of Knowledge. With- 
out some degree of attention, nothing can be learned. 
The accumulated power of attention renders acquisition 
possible. 



300 STUDY AND TEACHING. 

2. Mental Groivth depends upon Attention. Mental 
power increases in proportion as the pupil acquires the 
power of exact, rapid, penetrating, and prolonged atten- 
tion. Imbeciles lack this power. 

3. Perception and Memory depend upon Attention. 
Where there is no attention, we are unconscious of mental 
action, and hence recollection is impossible. The closer 
the attention, the clearer are our perceptions and the 
more tenacious our memories. Indistinct perception and 
poor memory are largely the results of the habit of inat- 
tention. 

4. Teaching Power is determined by the Poiver to 
Secure and Hold the Attention. "Without this power, 
neither ability nor scholarship can avail. It is clear that 
the art of securing attention is a fundamental qualifi- 
cation of the teacher. Education is a failure unless it 
develops in the pupil the power of penetrating and pro- 
longed attention. 

II. Unfavorable Conditions. — As far as possible, 
whatever distracts attention should be avoided. The 
disciplined mind may work amid confusion, but children 
need every favoring influence in their weak efforts to give 
attention. 

1. Boisterous Teaching distracts the Attention of 
those Studying. Teachers and pupils should speak in 
low or medium tones. We want energy, but not noise. 
Study to be quiet as well as earnest. 

2. Punishing Pupils during School Hours seriously 
interferes with Attention. Only the most unskillful 
teachers distract the attention of the school by reproof 
or scolding or other punishments. " A time for every- 
thing." 

3. Speaking to the Teacher diverts Attention. '* May 



ART OF SECURING ATTENTION AND STUDY. 301 

I speak ? " " May I get a drink ? " " May I leave my 
seat ? " No sucli questions should be permitted. All 
necessary communications should he made by silent sig- 
nals. The first question must never be asked. For the 
second question, the hand is raised with the first finger 
extended ; for the third, with the first and second fingers 
extended ; etc. The teacher responds by an appropriate 
movement of the head. Better see that all such things 
are attended to during the recesses, and thus avoid these 
interruptions. 

4. Watching Disorderly Pupils is most Damaging. 
The entire attention of the teacher is due to the class 
reciting. Only thus can he hold the attention of the 
pupils. Here is a serious difficulty. There is no remedy 
but in training the pupils to the habit of self-government. 
Place the disorderly where they will not need watching. 
Let your eyes and ears always be wide open, so as to take 
in the whole school. Watching the bad pupils will be- 
come unnecessary. 

III. How not to Secure Attention. — Attention is 
not secured by claiming it ; not by entreating it ; not by 
urging its importance ; not by force ; not by threats ; 
not by promises ; not by bribes. All such efforts are the 
subterfuges of the weak and the unskillful ; but they 
fail to long hold attention, and utterly fail to develop a 
habit of attention. The art of securing attention is pos- 
itive, not negative. 

IV. Kules for Securing and Cultivating At- 
tention. 

Eule I. Command attention by interesting the 
pupils. 

This is the fundamental means of securing, as well as 
of cultivating, the power of attention. The teacher must 



302 STUDY AND TEACHING. 

have something good to present, and must present it in 
a suitable manner. Study the secret springs of inter- 
est. Keep curiosity and the thirst for knowledge always 
active. 

1. Novel Objects. The child is all attention to novel 
objects. As primary teaching is necessarily objective, 
means of interesting pupils are readily commanded. In- 
finitely silly must be the teacher who does not use objects 
as the means of securing and cultivating attention. In 
nearly all school work objects may be used to increase 
the interest. 

2. Stories. Children are wonderfully attentive to sto- 
ries, anecdotes, incidents, and lively descriptions. Each 
recitation may be made more attractive and more valuable 
by incidents, anecdotes, or something else in this line. 
Be brief, and make everything illustrate the lesson. 

3. Adaptation. All knowledge, if timely, and adapt- 
ed to the capacity of pupils, may be made as interesting 
as objects and stories. Your language, your manner, 
your illustrations, and your methods must be suited to 
the advancement of your pupils. The knowledge must 
be yours, and must be fresh. 

4. Mistakes. Tasks, repulsive lessons, and forced 
work are educational mistakes. They repel and repress 
rather than develop the power of attention. It is glad 
activity that gives culture. When study is made more 
interesting than play, pupils, unasked, give the utmost 
attention. By interest and management, not by force, 
the soul is reached, and glad effort secured. 

" Command the attention of young pupils by an animated 
manner, and by addressing curiosity and expectation ; of older 
pupils, by brevity and clearness of language, and by logical con- 
nection of matter." 



ART OF SECURING ATTENTION AND STUDY. 303 

Eule II. "Win" attention by endless variety. 

Ayoid all routine, all monotony, all prosy explana- 
tions. Make everything real. Flash upon the class your 
information and your explanations. Win attention by 
presenting new and fresh knowledge. Prepare for each 
lesson. Create activity and win attention by constant 
surprises. Thus, while educating others, you will your- 
self grow strong and vigorous. 

Rule III. Attract attention by a good elocution. 

Don't talk much ; don't talk loud ; never scold ; and 
seldom repeat. Talk to the point, be in earnest, and keep 
in mind that " words fitly spoken are like apples of gold 
in pictures of silver." As the magnet attracts the needle, 
so does good elocution attract attention. Where the elo- 
cution is good, it is seldom necessary to ask attention. 
It is hard for any one to give attention to droning, inar- 
ticulate, monotonous, lifeless utterances. " 'Tis modu- 
lation charms the ear " and rivets the attention. 

" That I may attract attention, I must have attractive power 
that will draw the pupil toward me. I must have magnetism 
that will hold the pupil fast to me. I must have enthusiam that 
will fire my pupil with zeal for work. I must he able to sink 
myself from sight ; to transfer attention from myself to my sub- 
ject. If I have these four personal elements in my teaching, I 
shall get attention and hold it. If I have not, I must cultivate 
them." 

Rule IV. Compel attention by right class manage- 
ment. 

Each member of the class is held responsible for the 
entire lesson. Each one may be called on at any moment. 
Inattention is considered a serious disgrace. Questions 
are asked but once. Topic and question methods, indi- 
vidual and concert answers, written and oral work, are 



304 STUDY AND TEACHING. 

duly intermingled. The pupils are learning, not merely 
reciting. Most minds are somewhat sluggish, and work 
well only under pressure. The skillful teacher incites 
without exciting ; presses without coercing ; instructs 
without repressing self -helpfulness ; inspires without con- 
fusing ; compels without forcing. 

Eule V. Favor attention by frequent change of 
position. 

If kept long in one position, pupils will become rest- 
less and inattentive. Now have them stand, now sit ; 
now have them work on the board, now explain ; now 
have them answer individually, now in concert ; now 
give a moment's exercise, or vary the position in some 
way, and thus make attention possible and pleasant. 
" Give attention a chance." 

Rule VI. Promote attention by vigilance. 

Use your eyes and ears. The entire class and the en- 
tire school must be seen and heard. All symptoms of in- 
attention must be noted at once and the remedies applied. 
Stupid teachers, who see but a part of the class or 
school, promote inattention. Sensible teachers will not 
continue the lesson for a moment without attention. 
The alert teacher promotes attention by always being 
wide awake. 

Rule VII . Cultivate attention by frequency of rep- 
etition. 

During each recitation the leading features of pre- 
vious lessons are required. Because they are required to 
use their knowledge continually, pupils learn to give 
close attention. Studying merely to recite is a fatal er- 
ror. The lesson of to-day is forgotten to-morrow. Now, 
nothing can be said to be well learned until it has been 
often before the mind. Then children delight to do 



ART OF SECURING ATTENTION AND STUDY. 305 

that which they can do well. Cultivate attention by 
making each lesson a review of all previous lessons. 

Eule VIII. Stimulate attention by rewarding it. 

Always have something interesting and valuable to 
present. The teacher supplements both the book and 
child-experience. He is a great student. He constantly 
interrogates nature. His knowledge is always fresh and 
sparkling ; it is at once wider and more specific than that 
derived from text-books. He opens up to child-mind 
new beauties and new wonders. Curiosity is kept active. 
Every energy is aroused. The pupil grows strong as 
well as wise, and the power of ready and penetrating at- 
tention becomes a life habit. 

Eule IX. Encourage attention by showing that it is 
the key to success. 

Your own observation will furnish many examples. 
Each successful life is an example. Each pupil's expe- 
rience will illustrate the rule. 

1. Newton. " The difference between myself and other men 
consists chiefly in the habit I have acquired of more completely 
concentrating my attention, and holding it longer upon a subject, 
than most men. Because I have acquired the power of intense 
and prolonged attention, I am able to accomplish what others fail 
to do." 

2. Dickens. " The only serviceable, safe, certain, remunera- 
tive, attainable quality in every study is the power of attention. 
Whatever I have tried to do in life, I have tried with all my 
heart to do well. Whatever I have devoted myself to, I have de- 
voted myself to completely. This I now find to have been my 
golden rule." 

3. Napoleon. " The mind is like a chest with many drawers : 
when one is opened, all the rest should be closed. I am able to 
dispatch a marvelous amount of work, because, with all the powers 
of my mind, I attend to one thing at a time. When I have finished 



306 STUDY AND TEACHING. 

the work in one drawer, I close it and open another. "When I 
have finished and closed all, I can rest ; I can sleep at once, even 
on the battle-field." . 

V. Unwise Incentives to Study. — As a rule, 
prizes, individual emulation, rewards, punishments, and 
all such incentives, are unwise and generally injurious. 
The true teacher will never need to resort to such expedi- 
ents. The incentives embodied in the above rules will 
be found all-sufficient. 

"If prizes are ever offered, it should only he in cases where 
the pupil can not he reached by worthier motives, and as an ex- 
pedient to lift him to a higher plane. 

" I have known a few cases in which rewards, and even pun- 
ishments, were productive of good results; but such instances are 
exceptional. The rule is, that the fruitage of such motives is 
bad. Inflating the minds of children with ambitious prospects of 
becoming some ' great one ' is baneful and pernicious. Such in- 
centives turn the youth from the shops and farms and overcrowd 
the professions — results inimical to the stability and prosperity of 
the state. 

"The love of knowledge, the development of a true manhood, 
preparation for the highest usefulness, qualification for the great- 
est happiness, approval of the Creator — these are better, safer, 
nobler motives." (Prof. William Ieelan.) 



art of securing attention and study. 307 

Topical Eeview. — Aet of Securing Attention and 
Study. 

Importance of securing attention. 

1. Attention is the condition of knowledge. 

2. Mental growth depends upon attention. 

3. Memory and perception depend upon attention. 

4- Teaching power is determined by the power to secure attention. 
Unfavorable conditions for securing attention. 

1. Boisterous teaching. 

2. Punishments. 

3. Speaking to ihe teacher. 

4. Watching disorderly pupils. 
Mow not to secure attention. 

1. Not by claiming it. 

2. Not by entreating it. 

3. Not by force. 

4- Not by urging its importance. 

5. Not by threats. 

6. Not by promises. 

7. Not by bribes. 

8. Not by punishments. 

Rules for securing and cultivating attention., 

1. Command attention by interesting the pupils. 

2. Win attention by endless variety. 

3. Attract attention by a good elocution. 

4. Compel attention by right class management. 

5. Favor attention by frequent change of position. 

6. Promote attention by vigilance. 

7. Cultivate attention by frequency of repetition. 

8. Stimulate attention by rewarding it. 

9. Encourage attention by, showing that it is the key to success. 

Unwise incentives to study. 

1. Prizes. 

2. Individual emulation. 

3. Rewards. 

4. Punishments, etc. 



308 STUDY AND TEACHING. 

CHAPTEE V. 

WORK FOR THE LITTLE ONES. 

Pestalozzi is credited with the first discovery of 
childhood. Every successful primary teacher makes the 
same discovery. As a result, many of our primary schools 
are becoming models of interest and adaptation ; means 
and methods are adapted to child-nature. As flowers 
unfold amid sunshine and showers, so children develop 
under genial influences. 

I. School Work should give Pleasure. — As motion 
is in the line of the least resistance, so education is in the 
line of the greatest pleasure. Not painful, but pleasura- 
ble, are the processes of development. The application 
of this pervading principle is working an educational 
revolution such as the world has never before known. 

The old education was painful and repulsive. Studies 
were considered beneficial in proportion as they were dis- 
tasteful. The new education inspires voluntary and glad 
effort. Adaptation and interest are cardinal. The old 
education consisted largely of unmeaning task-work, 
which tended to discourage and repress. The new edu- 
cation leads the pupil to discover and apply, and inspires 
boundless enthusiasm. 

II. Play is an Educational Process. — It is the 
wild spontaneity of child-activity. Properly directed, 
the child plays up to work. To thus direct play is the 
mission of the Kindergarten. This can be done largely in 
every family and every primary school. The play songs 
cultivate a love of music. The construction blocks lay 
a foundation for inventive drawing. The exercise plays 
develop strength and grace. The mother and the teacher 



WORK FOR THE LITTLE ONES. 309 

who understand childhood will need few hints. There 
is a limitless field from which to choose. 

III. Hand- and Eye-Oulture. — The child is inca- 
pable of abstract study. He deals with the concrete. 
Ideas are developed through action. Besults are worked 
out. 

1. Reading. The object is examined. The name is 
spoken and placed on the board. The pupils find the 
word on the cards, print it on the board, write it on their 
slates. Words are combined and read. Lessons are 
written or printed on board and slates. Words are spelled 
and sentences written. Pictures are drawn. Objects are 
collected and brought to class. Constant activity and 
endless change characterize preparation and recitation. 
Hand work leads up to mind work. The pupils read 
well because they understand what they read. 

2. Drawing and Penmanship. The fact that every 
child loves to make pictures, indicates a great educational 
law. Drawing educates the hand, develops taste, aids in 
the acquisition of knowledge, and is of great practical 
value. It keeps pupils interested and busy. 

3. Arithmetic. With small sticks, the numeral frame, 
weights, measures, etc., each pupil performs the opera- 
tions. The board and slate are used without limit. The 
children are delighted because they can do, as well as 
understand, the work. 

4. Geography. With a board and some clay and sand, 
the continents, the divisions of land and water, etc., are 
constructed. Maps are drawn on slates and board. The 
globe and outline maps are made to do good service. 
The divisions of land and water are all made on the 
playground. A solid foundation is laid in actual experi- 
ence. 



310 STUDY AND TEACHING. 

5. Other branches equally engage the hand and eye. 
Indeed, hand exercise is the secret of success in pri- 
mary-school work. The little ones are overflowing with 
activity. Let this activity be so directed as to keep 
them interested and busy. At the same time let it be so 
directed as to lead to knowledge and culture. 

IV. Voice-Culture. — Speech and song are divine. 
All children delight in vocal effort. The teacher so man- 
ages as to make the vocal exercises educational. The 
child becomes an excellent reader, a charming conversa- 
tionalist, a sweet singer. The teacher takes lessons from 
the children while at play, and trains them to be equally 
natural and eloquent in the school-room. Every lesson 
is full of meaning and full of action. The Kindergarten 
has taught us invaluable lessons, true to nature. 

V. Body-Culture. — Play, spontaneous activity, pre- 
pares for work — determined activity. Play is the best 
exercise for children, yet calisthenics are indispensable. 
(1.) These exercises educate the body — give the children 
better command of the body. (2.) They are hygienic. 
By fostering a good circulation of the bipod, they make 
the brain a better instrument for mental effort. (3.) They 
promote order by working off the restless activity of 
childhood. (4. ) They tend to fit for citizenship. Pupils 
learn to act in concert, and thus prepare for the rhythm 
of society. They learn exact and prompt obedience to 
rightful authority, and are thus prepared for citizenship. 

These exercises need to be frequent and varied, calling 
into activity every muscle. They must be adapted to the 
strength of the pupils, and must be so managed as to de- 
light the children. 

VI. Action and Culture. — The following great 
educational principles pervade all primary work : 



WORK FOR THE LITTLE ONES. 311 

1. All true education is self-education. 

2. Personal and persistent effort is the condition of 
growth. 

3. Child-culture consists largely of well-directed phys- 
ical activities. 

4. The chief office of the teacher is to stimulate and 
direct child-effort. 

5. Child-growth is simply the gradual, continuous, 
all-sided development of the original powers and tenden- 
cies of child-nature. 

The day for parrot-work, for cramming, for mere book-teach- 
ing, for stultifying and dwarfing, for lifeless, repulsive schools, is 
for ever past. Now our little ones begin their education with 
glad activity. They see, and bear, and taste, and handle. They 
feel, and choose, and do. They begin with nature and oral teach- 
ing, and from ideas are led to words, from words to definitions, 
from nature to books. They tread surely, because every step rests 
on the rock of personal experience. They move on cheerily, be- 
cause each lesson opens up new beauties. They grow strong, be- 
cause each step is a victory. 

" Good schools are the natural results of good teaching. They 
never come of good school-houses, or good courses of study, or 
good superintendence, or good discourses on the philosophy of 
education, taken alone. All these external means may be useful 
and necessary as conditions ; but good teachers, guided by a true 
method, constitute the efficient cause of all good schools. With 
a true method of work, a teacher possessing those inherited gifts 
which are the germs necessary to every proper human develop- 
ment, and that professional skill which comes only by study and 
experience, and possessing the proper means -of teaching, will be 
sure of molding his pupils into good citizens and successful indi- 
vidual men and women ; for he will cultivate in them the power 
of finding the truth, and the inclination to choose it after it is 
found." 



312 STUDY AND TEACHING. 



Topical Eeview. — Wokk foe the Little Ones. 

School work should give pleasure. 

1. Education is in the line of greatest pleasure. 

2. Tlie old education was painful and repulsive. 

3. The new education inspires voluntary and glad effort. 

Flay is an educational process. 

1. Play is the wild spontaneity of child-activity. 

2. Work is determined activity. 

3. The child, properly directed, plays up to work. 

Hand- and eye-culture. 

1. Kindergarten work. 2. Primary reading. 

3. Drawing and penmanship. 4- Objective arithmetic. 

5. Objective geography. 6. Other branches. 

Voice-culture. 

1. All children delight in vocal effort. 

2. Make the vocal exercises educational. 

Body-culture. 

1. Calisthenic exercises give command of the body. 

2. They are hygienic. 

3. They promote order. 

J).. They tend to fit for citizenship. 

Culture by action. 

1. All true education is self -education. 

2. Effort is the condition of growth. 

3. Child-adture begins in physical activity. 

4. The teacher directs and stimulates effort. 

5. Child-growth is the gradual development of its powers. 

The day for parrot- work is for ever past. 

1. JVoiv the little ones begin with nature and oral teaching. 

2. They see, and hear, and taste, and handle. 

3. Tliey feel, and choose, and do. 

J},. They work up to ideas, words, definitions, books. 

5. They grow strong and happy because each step is a victory. 



THE OBJECTIVE POINTS IN EDUCATION. 313 

CHAPTER VI. 

THE OBJECTIVE POINTS IN EDUCATION. 

How to make the most of one's self — is not this the 
purpose and problem of education ? The end of educa- 
tion is not to teach pupils to know and use books, but to 
know, and make right use of, themselves. 

Education in its broadest sense means development. 
It is the evolution of every human power. As a science, 
it deals with the laws, means, and processes of develop- 
ment. As an art, it deals with the application of educa- 
tional means to educational ends. 

I. Well-directed Effort is the condition of all de- 
velopment. The child is endowed with the powers of 
thought, feeling, and action. Each power of the soul is 
self-acting, and grows only by self-effort. Teaching is 
the art of stimulating and directing the self-activity of 
the child. All education is necessarily self-education. 

II. Knowledge is Mental Food. — Food and ex- 
ercise are as necessary to mental as to physical growth. 
Knowledge is the stimulus which excites to mental effort. 
The appetite craves food, and in the presence of suitable 
food the entire digestive apparatus acts ; food is convert- 
ed into muscles ; muscles are used ; the result is physical 
power. The soul longs for knowledge ; in the presence 
of suitable knowledge, every faculty of the soul is roused 
to action ; the child knows, feels, chooses, acts ; the re- 
sult is increased mental power. 

III. The teue Objective Point in Education is 
the Development and Culture of the Mind. 

" In teaching, it is not the communicating of knowledge which 
is the great work ; it is rather the training of the child to find 
14 



314 STUDY AND TEACHING. 

out knowledge for himself ; it is educating the pupil to become a 
thorough student. Once make him sharply observant, closely at- 
tentive, exact in his recollection, and clear in his reasoning, and 
secure that all this shall be the fixed habit of his mind, and you 
need not concern yourself about giving him knowledge : his whole 
course will be full of self-instruction and self-acquisition. Use the 
branches not so much for the knowledge gained as for the study, 
the self-developing, self-disciplining effort they require ; and make 
your teaching a wise, direct, and patient effort to teach the pupil 
how to study, and to aid and inspire him to become a perfect 
student." (Kellogg.) 

iv. moeal cultuee is peeeminently the alm of 
all Education. 

" The ultimate end of all education is to lead men and human 
society toward their highest moral destiny. Education must be 
based, not on utilitarian considerations, but purely on the con- 
siderations of humanity. Education can not create anything in 
the pupil, can not put anything in him from without ; it can only 
develop into consciousness the powers that are in him, by arous- 
ing him to self-activity. Education finds its aim in the formation 
of character, in self-emancipation, in self-government. Character- 
building is the only ultimate aim of all education." (Fichte.) 

V. Kuinous Eeeoes. — With the masses, education is 
mere teaching, teaching is communicating knowledge, 
and communicating knowledge is seeing that the pupil 
studies the hook. Most teachers have imbibed the same 
degrading notion, and hence labor simply to increase the 
pupil's stock of knowledge. Hence, the more studies, 
the more books, the more recitations, the more answers 
committed, the better. 

" We sometimes hear it said : ' I want my child educated, that 
he may not have to work as /have to work.' A very poor rea- 
son for educating the children ! Labor, of itself, is not degrading. 



THE OBJECTIVE POINTS IN EDUCATION. 315 

We should educate, that our children may be capable of intelli- 
gent work, whether of the brain or hands. An ignorant man 
puts forth great efforts, machine-like. He has no skilled power ; 
to create that power is the object of education. Here is a pile 
of sand: the man merely of muscle may remove it, and will 
grumble because he receives but $1 per day ; the man of skill 
converts the sand into beautiful vases, and receives $10 per day. 
The child, if educated as he should be, will not have to work as 
his uneducated parent ; but he will not despise labor. If edu- 
cated, he can think, and he will not work as the ignorant do." 

The thoughtful teacher will labor to correct these 
errors, and teach the masses to realize that knowledge is 
a means and not the end. But no effort will be spared 
to render knowledge more and more instrumental in ad- 
vancing the highest physical, mental, and moral good of 
the race. 

VI. The Future is full of Promise. — Enlightened 
public sentiment is steadily elevating the educational ideas 
of the masses. Knowledge is beginning to be considered 
a means. Books and lessons are more and more consid- 
ered as educational instrumentalities. The practical or 
bread-winning power is beginning to be considered a 
means. The strong tendency is to consider a vigorous 
and noble manhood the real objective point in all edu- 
cational effort. At no distant day, only such men and 
women as are competent so to direct and stimulate child- 
effort as to secure development and culture, will be per- 
mitted to enter the school-room as teachers. 



316 STUDY AND TEACHING. 



CHAPTER VII. 

PRINCIPLES PERTAINING TO THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 



AND THE ART OF TEACHING. 



* 



I. Fundamental Principles. 

1. The body and the mind are inter-dependent. 

2 . Education is a growth. 

3. The mind in all its faculties is self-acting. 

4. By systematic and well-directed effort each power 
of the soul is educated. 

5. The teacher stimulates and directs effort, but all 
education is self-education. 

6. The teacher, to take a single intelligent step, must 
understand the plan of child-mind and the plan of the 
subject taught. 

7. In teaching, the matter and the method must be 
adapted to the capacity of the learner. 

8. At every stage, contact with the entire circle of 
science is necessary to complete and harmonious develop- 
ment. 

9. Educational effort should be in the line of least re- 
sistance — i. e., of greatest pleasure. 

10. At every step in education, moral, intellectual, 
and physical development should receive due attention. 

11. General Principles of Education. (Brooks.) 

1. The primary object of education is the perfection of the 
individual. 

2. The perfection of the individual is attained by the har- 
monious and full development of all his powers. 

* These principles are merely stated here ; in " The Science of Hu- 
man Culture " and " The Art of Teaching " they are derived, examined, 
and applied. 



EDUCATION AND TEACHING. 317 

3. The intellectual powers develop naturally in a certain order, 
which order should be followed in education : perception, mem- 
ory, imagination, conception, judgment, reason. 

4. The basis of this development is the self-activity of the 
child. 

5. This self-activity has two distinct phases : from without 
inward — receptive and acquisitive ; and from within outward — 
productive and expressive. 

6. These two phases, the receptive and productive, should go 
hand in hand in the work of education. 

7. There must be objective realities to supply the condition 
for the self-activity of the mind. 

8. Education is not creative ; it simply develops existing real- 
ities and possibilities. 

9. Education should be so modified and adapted as to develop 
the different tastes and talents of the pupils. 

10. A scheme of education should aim to attain the triune 
result — development, learning, and efficiency. 

III. Psychological Principles relating to 
Teaching.* 

1. In education, culture is worth more than knowledge. 

2. Exercise is the great law of culture. 

3. The teacher should aim to give careful culture to the per- 
ceptive powers of the child. 

4. The teacher should aim to furnish the memory of the child 
with facts and words. 

5. The memory should be trained to operate by the laws of 
association and suggestion. 

6. The power of forming ideal creations should be carefully 
cultivated. 

7. The mind should be gradually led from concrete to abstract 
ideas. 

* " Normal Method of Teaching," by Edward Brooks, is a valuable 
work in which these principles are elaborated and applied. 



318 STUDY AND TEACHING. 

8. A child should be gradually led from particular ideas to 
general ideas. 

9. A youth should be taught to reason first inductively and 
then deductively. 

10. A learner should be gradually led to attain clear concep- 
tions of intuitive ideas and truths. 

IV. Principles pertaining to the Order of 

PRESENTING TRUTH. (BROOKS.) 

1. The second object of teaching is to impart knowledge. 

2. Things should be taught before words. 

3. Ideas should be taught before truths. 

4. Particular ideas should be taught before general ideas. 

5. Facts, or particular truths, should be taught before prin- 
ciples, or general truths. 

6. In the physical sciences, causes should be taught before 
laws. 

7. In the physical sciences, causes and laws should be taught 
before the scientific classification. 

8. The elements of the inductive sciences should precede the 
deductive sciences. 

9. The formal study of the deductive sciences should precede 
that of the inductive sciences. 

10. The metaphysical sciences should be the last in a course 
of instruction. 

V. Principles pertaining to the Processes in 
Harmonious Teaching.* 

1. Primary instruction should proceed from the known to the 
unknown. 

2. Advanced instruction may sometimes proceed from the un- 
known to the known. 

3. Primary instruction should be given in the concrete. 

4. Advanced instruction should be more abstract. 

* James Johonnot, in " Principles and Practice of Teaching." Some 
of the principles are slightly modified. 



EDUCATION AND TEACHING. 319 

5. Primary instruction should be synthetic and analytic, 
fi. Advanced instruction should be both analytic and syn- 
thetic. 

7. Primary instruction should be inductive. 

8. Advanced instruction should be inductive and deductive. 

9. Primary instruction should proceed from the practical to 
the theoretical. 

10. Advanced instruction should proceed from the theoretical 
to the practical. 

VI. Principles pertaining to Courses oe Study 
and Methods of Teaching. (Johonnot.) 

1. All primary ideas of the material world must come through 
the senses. 

2. The senses should be trained and made acute by systematic 
object-teaching. 

3. Attention is best secured by proper and related object les- 
sons. 

4. Perceptive knowledge should be made the basis of primary 
instruction. 

5. Memory is best cultivated by forcible, repeated, and re- 
lated perceptions and ideas. 

6. Subjects appealing mainly to the reason and judgment be- 
long to the advanced course of instruction. 

7. Ideas should precede words. 

8. Instruction should proceed from the known to the un- 
known. . 

9. Exercise should be left to the pupil. 

10. Each process of instruction should include full perception, 
distinct understanding, clear expression, and, where possible, the 
passing of thought into action. 



PAET VI. 

CLASS MANAGEMENT. 



CHAPTER I. — Principles relating to Class Management. 
II. — Lessons and Class "Work. 
III. — General Class Methods. 
IV. — Auxiliary Class Methods. 
V. — Questionable, Erroneous, and Antiquated 

Class Methods. 
VI. — Art of Questioning. 
VII. — Golden Hints to Teachers. 



PART SIXTH. 
CLASS MANAGEMENT. 



" A Class is a Number of Pupils of Similar 
Standing- and Attainments grouped for Common 
Work. Grouping multiplies the teacher's efficiency by- 
twenty, and utilizes those potent forces — sympathy, emu- 
lation, and competition." 

The problems relating to class management are of pro- 
foundest interest. For their solution the centuries have 
done much. Much may be learned of the masters, from 
Socrates down. But, with all the lights of the past, and 
all the helps of the present, each one, from necessity, 
must work out these problems for himself. The teacher 
is an artist, not an artisan. In what follows, the effort 
is to develop principles rather than rules, and to create 
better ideals rather than to teach specific methods. The 
teacher should be the master of methods, not the slave. 
His mind should mingle with that of the pupil, and he 
should breathe a new life into the soul of the learner. 
Do you think such a teacher will ever be found standing 
before his class, book in hand, trying to teach verbal defi- 
nitions and listening to verbatim recitations ? 



324 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

CHAPTER I. 

PRINCIPLES RELATING TO CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

I. The Interested Attention of all must be Se- 
cured. — The interested attention of each pupil during 
the entire recitation is the first condition of success in 
teaching. You may be able to solve the hardest problems 
and write the ablest books, but if you have not the power 
to secure and hold the attention of your pupils, you can 
not teach. 

,11. Each Pupil must be held Responsible for 
each Answer. — Each question or topic should be dis- 
cussed silently by each member of the class. Any one 
who fails to object to an erroneous answer is held as 
agreeing with it. This principle individualizes the pupils, 
compels attention, fosters independent thought, and se- 
cures accuracy. It utterly discards all mere routine 
methods, so productive of inattention, listlessness, parrot 
answers, and dullness. 

III. The Pupil must Answer in his own Lan- 
guage. — Rarely should the pupil be permitted to answer 
in the language of the book or of the teacher. From the 
earliest stages* the pupil must be trained to translate every- 
thing into his own language. Only thus can we be cer- 
tain that the subject is understood. This principle will 
lead to true language-Culture and thorough scholarship. 

IV. The Teacher must never do for the Pupil 
what he can Manage to have him do for Himself. 
—Education results from self-exertion. Culture comes 
from well-directed personal effort. The best teacher 
helps his pupils the least, but manages to have them 
help themselves the most. 



PRINCIPLES RELATING TO CLASS MANAGEMENT. 325 

V. All Assistance should be given during Bec- 
itation. — The entire time of the teacher is needed to 
conduct the recitations and manage the school ; there- 
fore it is better for the pupil to prepare the lesson un- 
aided. In class, the necessary assistance can he given to 
twenty as well as to one. All needed instruction can be 
given during the recitation, leaving the teacher free dur- 
ing rests and before and after school to look after the 
higher interests of the pupils. Few will question either 
the soundness or the importance of this principle. Only 
novices work the problems for their pupils. 

VI. Train the Pupil to be Honest, Indepen- 
dent, and Thorough. — All pretense should be dis- 
couraged. The pupil should be stimulated to indepen- 
dent effort, both in preparing and reciting, and should 
be encouraged to refuse assistance when at all able to 
achieve the victory for himself. This principle can hard- 
ly be made too emphatic. 

VII. The Pupil, not the Teacher, should do 
the Work. — The violation of this principle is a common 
but pernicious error of the profession. Leading ques- 
tions, such as involve the answer or hint words, finishing 
the answer when the pupil hesitates, repeating the an- 
swer after the pupil, solving all the difficulties as soon as 
they present themselves, are a few of the ways in which 
too many teachers defraud their pupils. The pupils, and 
not the teacher, should do the reciting. 

VIII. Manage to reach the Pupils individually 
during each Eecitation. — The certainty of being called 
upon is a most effectual stimulus to preparation. When- 
ever a class becomes so large that this principle can not 
be observed, it should be divided. The skillful, energetic 
teacher, in most subjects, can manage admirably a class 



326 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

not exceeding thirty, and will reach each one repeatedly 
during each recitation. 

IX. Oeal and "Wkitten Exercises should occupy 
about Equal Time. — With young pupils the oral must 
predominate. With all the advanced grades much writ- 
ten work is needed. The ability to give concise, clear, 
correct, and well-written answers is a desideratum. The 
wise teacher uses the blackboard almost constantly. Much 
written work may be brought to the recitation on slates 
or paper. Country schools too often neglect the written 
work ; hence the. common inability to write a creditable 
letter or business paper. 

X. System, Vigor, and Vivacity must charac- 
terize Class Management. — Only systematic effort 
produces desirable results. The utter want of system 
will account for the shamefully low products of so many 
schools. Then vigor and life are necessary in order to 
maintain an unflagging interest and elicit the best efforts 
of the pupils. 

XL The Hearts of both Teacher and Pupil 
must be in the Work. — The disregard of this principle 
is painfully prevalent. Failure is almost certain when 
either the teacher or the pupil has no heart for the work. 
Love of the work is a primary condition of success. 



CHAPTER II. 

LESSONS AND CLASS WORK. 

Educational results worked out by the thought and 
experience of educators are made to tell in the class. 
Guided by great principles, with well-defined objects in 



LESSONS AND CLASS WORK. 327 

view, the teacher awakens thought, directs effort, concen- 
trates mental activity, and trains the pupil to achieve 
results. 

I. Objects of Class Woek. — The immediate con- 
tact of the minds of teacher and pupil, stimulating and 
training to systematic and persistent effort, the correction 
of faults, and the building up of right habits, are the 
general objects of class work. The following are some of 
the special objects : 

1. To train the Pupil in the Art of Study. How to 
study is an art to be learned. That mother who said to 
the teacher, " Train my boy to prepare the lessons, and 
I will hear him recite them," displayed great wisdom. 
But she evidently did not know that a properly conducted 
recitation is the best means of training the pupil how to 
study, and also of stimulating him to prepare for the 
recitation. 

2. Examination of Written WorJc prepared by Pupils. 
With young pupils this should never be neglected. Good 
work should be commended. 

3. To test the Extent of the Pupil's Preparation. 
There can be no excuse for poor lessons. Thorough 
preparation must be secured at all hazards. The cer- 
tainty that the preparation will be thoroughly tested is a 
powerful incentive to study. The pupil's knowledge of 
the subject may be tested by topics, by questions, or by 
requiring a written outline. 

4. To train to the Habit of Clear, Concise, and Con- 
nected Expression. Pupils should recite by topics as well 
as discuss the lesson. Merely answering questions is not 
enough. "Written answers and composition are admirable 
means of cultivating accurate and ready expression. 

5. To arouse Interest, cultivate a Love of Study, and 



328 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

train to Investigate. This is vastly more important than 
the knowledge communicated or acquired. 

6. To impart Information. The teacher supplements 
the text-book, and literally feeds the hungry minds of his 
pupils. 

7. To direct the Work of the Pupils. When under 
intelligent direction the pupil accomplishes many times 
as much as when left to grope his way. 

8. To lead the Pupil to apply the Things Learned. 
Mere isolated facts are almost worthless, yet much of the 
current teaching gives the pupil little more. The living 
teacher and class work are needed to lead the pupil to 
realize that all the sciences are one hierarchy, and to 
train him to classify and use the knowledge acquired. 

II. Length of Recitations. — The length of the reci- 
tation must depend on the character of the school and 
the age and advancement of the pupils. Short, lively 
recitations are better than long, dull ones. The attention 
can be secured and the interest maintained only for a 
limited time. To continue the recitation longer will 
prove an injury. 

The Limits. The widest experience in all countries has satis- 
fied educators that the best results are secured within the follow- 
ing limits : (1.) Primary school, from 10 to 20 minutes ; (2.) Gram- 
mar school, from 20 to 30 minutes ; (3.) High school, from 30 to 40 
minutes ; (4.) College, from 40 to 60 minutes. In country schools 
no recitation should he less than ten nor more than thirty min- 
utes. No effort should be spared to secure sufficient time to make 
each recitation effective. 

III. Assigning Lessons. — Teachers often greatly err 
in the assignment of lessons . Age, capacity, and oppor- 
tunity are alike ignored. Regardless of the difficulties, 
so many pages are assigned. Figures can not express 



LESSONS AND CLASS WORK. 329 

the evils resulting from this stupid practice. " Show me 
the lessons assigned, and I will tell you the merits of the 
teacher." To assign lessons judiciously requires unlim- 
ited care, sound judgment, and accurate knowledge. 
General directions may be given, but the art can only 
be acquired by experience. 

1. The Lesson must he adapted to the Class. Not 
to the two or three bright pupils, or the two or three 
dull ones, but to the body of the class. Additional work, 
such as reports, may be given to the bright pupils, and 
only the minimum amount of work required of the dull 
ones. This elasticity enables the. teacher to do the best 
for each pupil, even in large classes. 

2. Assign Pages as well as Subjects. The old school- 
master assigned pages, and the modern teacher assigns 
subjects ; but the coming teacher will assign definite les- 
sons in the text-books in connection with the subjects. 
The mere theorist would have you assign subjects only ; 
but the practical worker steadily assigns specific book 
work as well as subjects. 

3. Assign Short Lessons. You can then count on 
thorough preparation. Besides, the pupil will have time 
for work outside of the book, and in class you will have 
time for instruction, drill, and review. 

The young physician gives strong medicines in large doses, but 
the old physician gives mild medicines in small doses. So it is 
with teachers. The inexperienced teacher will take a class through 
the Third Reader in a single quarter, while our best schools take 
two years for the same work. The object is not to rush " through 
the book," but to develop all the powers of the soul. The acqui- 
sition of valuable knowledge is both a means and a result. 

4. In assigning the Lesson, teach the Pupils how to 
Prepare it. With young pupils this is peculiarly impor- 



330 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

tant. While the work must be directed by the teacher, 
his great duty is to initiate the pupils into the ways of 
doing it for themselves. A little time spent in giving 
the necessary instruction will create interest, incite to 
cheerful study, and secure successful preparation. 

IV. Tkeatment op the Ukpkepaeed. 

1. Encourage Always. Heartily approve good work, 
and show the failing ones that they too may succeed. 
Nothing should be done to discourage the pupil. He can 
and will try. 

2- Ascertain the Cause of Failure. You can then 
judiciously seek a remedy. In school management wc 
have no specifics. Each case needs special treatment, 
and all general directions are merely suggestive. 

3. Have Pupils understand that you expect Good Les- 
sons. This is a powerful motive to most pupils. They 
grieve to see your look of disappointment when they fail, 
but they are made happy by your approving smile when 
they succeed. 

4. Impress the Importance of Diligent Study. Each 
one works for himself, not for the teacher or the parent. 
Good lessons are the beginning of success in life. Fail- 
ure is a serious matter to the pupil, the parent, the school, 
and the world. 

5. In Chronic Cases of Failure, the Pupil must be 
made to feel the Loss. This can be done in various ways : 

(1.) By commending diligent pupils. The shortcomings of the 
negligent are thus placed in sharp contrast. (2.) By excusing 
from class. The recitation is the privilege of the diligent, and 
the unprepared forfeit this privilege. (3.) By reducing to a lower 
class. Such pupils must not he permitted to become an incubus 
to their fellows. (4.) By excusing from school. After every pos- 
sible expedient has failed, it is better to let the pupil rest a term 
or two. 



GENERAL CLAN'S METHODS. 331 

Never force Pupils to Study. Detaining or whipping pupils 
to make them study is a relic of ancient barbarism. General- 
ly the teacher rather than the pupil deserves the punishment. 
Do you adapt the matter and the method to the capacity of the 
pupil? Do you infuse life and energy into everything? Do 
you manage to have each pupil feel the pleasure of achievement? 
Do you make study more interesting than play? If you do not, 
can you afford to punish pupils for not studying ? All the powers 
of the soul develop when study is a real joy. Glad activity is the 
great secret in education. 

Use Force to overcome Bad Habits. The idle, the negligent, the 
careless, the stupid, and the wayward must be reached. Punish- 
ment in some form is a necessity; only let it be made plain that 
the pupil is punished for idleness and disobedience. I have no 
sympathy with wishy-washy management. Some things must be 
done. The pupil must study. Force must be used if necessary 
to overcome bad habits. Secure earnest study by wise manage- 
ment. 



CHAPTER III. 

GENERAL CLASS METHODS. 

Glass Work stimulates and directs Effort. The 
fruitful mind of the teacher broods over the struggling 
mind of the pupil — arousing, guiding, instructing. The 
learner is trained to wrest the secrets from nature and 
books. Mental power is developed and right habits are 
formed. This is teaching. 

Glass Methods vary as Subjects and Teachers vary. 
The method is determined by the subject, the class, and 
the teacher. The end to be reached is culture by means 
of mastering subjects. The safe rule is to employ such 



332 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

methods as will best enable you to effect the desired re- 
sults. 

General Class Methods are used in all subjects, and 
are common to all good teaching. Founded in educa- 
tional principles, they are essentials in the art of teach- 
ing. Such are the Socratic, the Topic and Question, the 
Discussion, and the Conversation methods. The Lec- 
ture method has some claims to recognition under this 
head. 

1. The Socratic Method. — 1. Definition. By skill- 
ful questioning the pupil is led to discover truth for him- 
self. Subjects are examined from the standpoint of the 
learner. The teacher stimulates and directs, but never 
crams. Pupils are encouraged to present their own 
thoughts. If correct, the teacher deepens and widens 
these views by suggestive illustrations ; if incorrect, the 
absurdity is shown by leading the pupils to discover the 
legitimate consequences. Thus the burden of observa- 
tion and research is thrown upon the learner, who, at 
every step, feels the joy of discovery and the conscious 
pleasure of assisting the teacher. Such teaching results 
in development, growth, education. 

2. Illustrations. The following free translation of a conversa- 
tion between Socrates and one of his pupils is a good example of 
the Socratic method : 

Meno. " Socrates, we come to you feeling strong and wise ; we 
leave you feeling helpless and ignorant. Why is this ? " 

Socrates. "I will show you." Calling a young Greek, and 
making a line in the sand, he proceeded : " Boy, how long is this 
line?" 

Boy. " It is a foot long, sir." 

Socrates. " How long is this line? " 

Boy. " It is two feet long, sir." 



GENERAL CLASS METHODS. 333 

Socrates. "How much larger would be the square constructed 
on the second line than on the first line ? " 

Boy. " It would be twice as large, sir." 

Under the direction of the boy, Socrates constructs the two 
squares. 

Socrates. " How much larger than the first did you say the 
second square would be? " 

Boy. "I said it would be twice as large." 

Socrates. " But how much larger is it? " 

Boy. " It is four times as large." 

Socrates. "Thank you, my boy; you may go. — Meno, that 
boy came to me full of confidence, thinking himself wise. I told 
him nothing. By a few simple questions I led him to see his 
error and discover the truth. Though really wiser, he goes away 
feeling humbled." 

The above is an object lesson. To illustrate the Socratic meth- 
od of teaching abstract truths, another example is given : 

A Model Lesson. "Socrates would convince Alcibiades, in 
opposition to materialistic views, that the mind is the man. He 
abstains from laying this down as a proposition to be proved, 
and offers no connected argument. He begins by asking whether 
he who uses a thing and the thing used are not altogether differ- 
ent; and then, Alcibiades being reluctant to answer positively, 
he asks again more specifically. 

" Socrates. A currier, does he not use a cutting-knife ? is he 
not different from the instrument he uses? 

" Alcibiades. Most certainly. 

" S. In like manner the lyrist, is he not different from the in- 
strument he plays on ? 

"A. Undoubtedly. 

" S. This, then, was what I asked you just now. Does not he 
who uses a thing seem to you always different from the thing 
used? 

" A. Very different. 

" S. But the currier, does he cut with the instrument alone, or 
also with his hands? 



334 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

" A. Also with his hands. 

" S. He, then, uses his hands ? 

U A. Yes. 

" S. We are agreed, then, that he that uses a thing and the 
thing used are different ? 

" A. We are. 

" S. And in this work he use3 also his eyes? 

" A. Tes. 

U S. The currier and lyrist are, therefore, different from the 
hands and eyes with which they work ? 

"A. So it seems. 

" S. Now, then, does not a man use his whole body? 

"A. Unquestionably. 

" S. But we are agreed that he that uses and that which is 
used are different. 

"A. Yes. 

" S. A man is, therefore, different from his body ? 

" A. So I think. 

" S. What then is the man ? 

" A. I can not say. 

" S. You can say at least that the man is that which use3 the 
body? 

"A. True. 

" S. Now, then, does anything use the body but the mind? 

11 A. Nothing. 

" S. The mind is therefore the man? — A. The mind alone. 1 " 

3. Use of the Socratic Method. Though older than 
Socrates, this method is modern ; it is, in a high sense, 
the method of Pestalozzi and the new education. Its 
special use is in giving original instruction. In primary 
work the Socratic is the dominant method. In all grades 
of school work it holds a prominent place. The teacher 
is an instructor, and teaching is presenting a subject or 
object of thought to the mind in such a manner as to lead 
it to think., to reason, or to gain knowledge. 



GENERAL CLASS METHODS. 335 

4. Advantages. Pupils discover truth, for themselves, 
solve their own problems, master their own difficulties, 
and become courageous and strong. Impressions made 
are lasting ; the knowledge thus acquired can be used. 
Mere school-keepers, rote-teachers, quacks, shams, and 
fossils will never adopt this plan of teaching ; but, as 
teachers become familiar with the science of education, 
and skilled in the art of teaching, they will necessarily 
use the Socratic method in giving original instruction. 
Questioning is better than telling. 

II. The Topic and Question Method. — 1. Defini- 
tion. The subject is examined by topics, and acquisi- 
tion tested by questions. Pupils are trained to tell con- 
nectedly their own thoughts in their own language. 
Pointed questions are interjected at every step to hold the 
attention of the class, direct effort, and test thoroughness. 

2. Use. This method is made* the basis in class 
work. Other methods supplement this. The teacher, 
whenever necessary, asks sharp questions. Each member 
of the class is held responsible for all the work. Thus the 
close attention of each one is secured, and shallowness 
and pretense are exposed. 

3. Danger. Class work may degenerate into mere re- 
citing, and teaching may be excluded. Exclusive topic 
work is fatal to vigor and thoroughness. The topic 
method needs to be used sparingly in primary teaching. 
Lazy teachers find the topic method an admirable means 
of shirking work. They hear the recitations . 

4. Advantages. Subjects are examined systematically, 
and pupils learn the art of consecutive discourse. When 
judiciously used and constantly supplemented by other 
methods, the topic method may rightly be made the basis 
of class work. 



336 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

III. The Discussion Method. — 1. Definition. In 
short and pointed speeches the pupils define and main- 
tain their positions. Objections are urged and answered. 
Pupils learn to yield gracefully when convinced. The 
teacher directs the discussion, and closes it at the right 
moment. 

2. Use. Discussion elicits intense interest, calls forth 
the best efforts of pupils, and leads to accuracy and clear- 
ness. In some form, and to some extent, this method 
may be used in all schools. 

3. Dangers. Time may be squandered in desultory 
talk ; the disposition to dispute rather than investigate 
may be fostered ; and feelings may be wounded by sharp 
retorts and personal allusious. The wise teacher will 
guard against these evils, and will use the discussion 
method sparingly and wisely. 

4. Advantages. 'The discussion method tends to de- 
velop vigorous thought and independent expression. As 
iron sharpens iron, so discussion sharpens mind. Edu- 
cationally, the discussion method stands very high. In 
these mental conflicts the utmost power of the pupil 
is put forth. He acquires cogency of thought and vigor 
of expression. He learns to respect the positions of 
others, and at the same time manfully maintain his own. 
There is no better way to cultivate independence, self- 
assertion, liberality, and the habit of treating an opponent 
courteously and fairly. The discussion method supple- 
ments the Socratic and the topic methods. It tends to 
break up monotony, to dissipate insipidness and stupidity, 
and to bring into contempt all sophistry and shallow pre- 
tense. 

From the primary school to the university, this method may 
he used with incalculable advantage. Let the discussion method 



GEXERAL CLASS METHODS. 337 

predominate in our schools and colleges, and teachers will cease 
to he called narrow, bigoted, tyrannical. Wide culture and a 
clear head will be found necessary in order to decide points, direct 
discussions, give information, and sustain the interest. Mere 
school -keepers do not dare to permit discussions ; many a college 
professor would lose his position within a month. But competent 
educators who use this method will grow with the work, and, 
like their pupils, become courteous ladies and gentlemen, as well 
as independent and powerful thinkers. Give us less cramming, 
less artificial training, and more rugged development. The great 
want of our schools is growth. The world needs oaks, not wil- 
lows. The discussion method is preeminently the method to malce 
men. 

IV. The Conversation Method. — 1. Definition. 
The teacher presents his views, and leads the members of 
the class to do the same. The style is conversational. 
Each one is free to ask and answer questions. The 
teacher should be well prepared, and should work for re- 
sults. This was the method of the Great Teacher. The 
perfect model lessons may be studied as reported by 
Matthew and Luke. 

2. Use. This method supplements the Socratic in 
giving original instruction, and is especially suited for the 
oral work in all schools. Professional instruction, for the 
most part, is given by this method in normal schools and 
normal institutes. Many instructors in theological, med- 
ical, law, and technical schools use it to great advantage. 

3. Dangers. Teachers may become loquacious ; pupils 
may ask silly questions ; or side issues may absorb the 
time. The teacher needs to be full of the theme, and 
his few remarks should be full of information and pith. 
The pupils need to be so impressed that no one will dare 
to trifle. 

4. Advantages. The teacher seems to merely lead in 

15 



338 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

the investigation, and his remarks seem to be sponta- 
neous. The pupils feel that they are doing the work, and 
each one realizes the pleasure of original discovery. This 
is true teaching, and the result is real education. 

5. Illustration. The following conversation between an insti- 
tute instructor and the teacher-pupils admirably serves our pur- 
pose: 

Question. Why should we teach ? 

Answer. That others may gain knowledge. 

Q. Why should others gain knowledge ? 

A. That they may have a wider means of enjoyment and use- 
fulness. 

Q. In order to enjoy their knowledge, what must children do 
with it? 

A. They must use it. 

Q. In order to use their knowledge, what must they do ? 

A. They must think. 

Q. Why have the children as well as the teacher to think ? 

A. In order that their knowledge may do them greater good. 

Q. Why not let the teacher do all the thinking? 

A. It would not improve the children. 

Q. What must be used in thinking ? 

A. The mind. 

Q. What does every child's mind possess ? 

A. Certain faculties. 

Q. What are faculties of the mind ? 

A. Powers which the mind possesses to do certain things. 

Q. In order that children may use these faculties — may think 
— what must be done with the faculties ? 

A. They must be cultivated. The children must be led to use 
them. 

Q. How may this be done ? 

A. By teaching object lessons ; thus taking the children to 
Nature — the source of knowledge — and allowing them to com- 
pare, reason, and generalize for themselves. Then let them ex- 
press in their language the results of their investigations, being 



GENERAL CLASS METHODS. 339 

careful to have their expressions accurate. This kind of work 
makes the children independent. 

V. The Lectuke Method. — 1. Definition. The 
teacher clearly, tersely, and systematically presents the 
subject; the learner listens intently, firmly fixes in his 
memory the leading points, and at his leisure ponders 
and digests the lecture. 

The lecturer outlines the subjects, suggests the fields of re- 
search, indicates the line of thought, gives much information, and 
stimulates to effort. If the students, by long and earnest study, 
make the lecture their own, great good results. But nowhere in 
this country has the strictly lecture method given entire satisfac- 
tion. Even in colleges and universities, in order to render it 
efficient, it has been found necessary to have oral examinations 
every two or three days, and written examinations as often as 
once a month. 

The lecture method is utterly out of place in elementary 
schools. "Wherever tried, it proves an ignominious failure. Even 
in our colleges it often becomes a training process for inattention, 
listlessness, mischief, and dissipation. If the teacher is full of 
the subject and possessed of power, these evils need not follow. 
Success depends upon the instructor, the class of students, and 
the subject treated. 

" Class teaching is a device to economize time and labor, and 
to utilize the forces which are found inseparable from group ; but 
it does not sink the individual in the group. Each must be a3 
well cared for as though the instruction was to him alone. This 
is often overlooked. The class is addressed as a whole, and if 
there is a fair amount of attention the teacher is satisfied, which 
is a fatal mistake. The class must not be dealt with as a com- 
pound, but as made up of individuals. It must be dealt with as 
a skillful gardener deals with his garden, where each plant has 
the culture it needs, to the manifest advantage of the whole." 
(" Class Teaching.' 1 ) 



340 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 



Topical Keview. — General Class Methods. 

Introduction. 

1. Class work should stimulate and direct effort. 

2. Class methods vary with the teacher, the subject, and the class. 

The Socratic method. 

1. Definition. By skillful questioning, the pupil is led to discover 

truth. 

2. Illustrations. Socrates and Mcno ; Socrates and Alcibiadcs. 

3. Use. In giving original instruction and in exposing error. 

J).. Advantages. Questioning is better than telling. Pupils dis- 
cover. 

The topic and question method. 

1. Definition. The subject is examined by topics, and acquisition is 

tested by questions. 

2. Use. This method is made the basis in class work. 

3. Danger. Class work may degenerate into mere recitation. 

Ij.. Advantages. Subjects are examined systematically. Pupils ac- 
quire the art of connected discourse. 

The discussion method. 

1. Definition. The pupils define and prove their positions. 

2. Use. Discussion calls forth the best efforts of the pupils. 

3. Danger. It may foster disputation rather than investigation. 

4. Advantage. It develops vigorous thought and self-assertion. 

The conversation method. 

1. Definition. Facts and views are stated and questions are asked 

and ansivered by pupils and teacher. 

2. Use. To stimulate and direct original investigation. 

3. Danger. Time may be wasted in mere talking. 

4. Advantage. The pupils feel that they are doing the work. 

The lecture method* 

1. Definition. The teacher clearly, tersely, and systematically pre- 

sents the subject. 

2. Use. For advanced work. 

3. Abuse. Its use in the lower schools. 

4. Advantage. It inspires and directs effort. 



AUXILIARY CLASS METHODS. 341 

CHAPTER IV. 

AUXILIARY CLASS METHODS. 

The general class methods cover all the ground, and 
are the methods used by efficient instructors. Besides 
these, the skillful teacher calls to his aid various expedi- 
ents which we may call auxiliary methods. Of approved 
auxiliary methods, we call attention to the following : 

I. The Writing Method. — Whatever plan may be 
pursued, much written work should be required. The 
board, the slate, and the paper are important educational 
aids, and should be fully utilized. The insipid and 
over-sensitive teacher, who shrinks from a little crayon 
dust and the life and hum of vigorous class work, should 
be speedily promoted. The class-room is no place for the 
nervous, the fussy, or the invalid. To awaken interest 
and direct the energies of youth, requires enthusiasm, 
power, energy, work. 

The means for written work should always be at com- 
mand. From the primary school to the college, much 
class work should be written work. The teacher who ig- 
nores the writing method needs to learn the ways of edu- 
cation more perfectly. 

II. The Outline Method. — After a subject has 
been mastered in detail, it is reviewed in outline. The 
outline aids memory and enables the learner to grasp 
the subject as a whole. It leads to the mastery of essen- 
tials and the omission of burdensome details. President 
Brown asks and answers the vital question : 

" Do we not teach too much? I do not mean that our courses 
of study are too extensive ; but do we not teach too much of any 
one subject? We give the mass without the thought, the essence. 



342 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

We solve problem after problem, we commit definition after defi- 
nition, we parse word after word, we translate sentence after sen- 
tence, and do not realize that there is any relation the one with 
the other. It seems to me, that if we would learn principles sys- 
tematically rather than so much, we would have more knowledge 
at our command. If we could see the thought as developed in any 
subject, just as we should and must see the thought in reading — 
and not only see the thought in one subject, but be able to follow 
it through every branch — then our knowledge would be system- 
atic." 

The outline method, when wisely used, tends to secure 
the results referred to above. 

Caution. Avoid mere outline work. Your pupils 
will starve if fed on skeletons. To begin with diagrams, 
to teach from diagrams, and to depend upon diagrams, 
are fundamental educational errors. 

The Place of Outlines. — Subjects are first presented syn- 
thetically, then analytically. We begin with the concrete and work 
up to classes, definitions, rules, principles. We begin with par- 
ticulars and work up to diagrams. Modern text-books rightly 
place the outline at the close of the subject. 

III. The Reporting Method. — One or two mem- 
bers of the class are appointed to report on specific topics 
connected with the lesson, or previous lessons. The 
teacher will see that these reports are brief, well pre- 
pared, and well presented. The reports occupy a small 
part of the recitation. They should be neither too long 
nor too frequent, nor must they supplant the regular 
work. They furnish extra work for bright pupils, and 
tend to relieve inequalities in classification. These re- 
ports serve well for review, but the chief advantage is in 
training pupils to work up subjects and present the re- 
sults of research. 



AUXILIARY CLASS METHODS. 343 

IV. The Becipeocal Method. — The class is divided 
into groups of two or more each, and these in turn act as 
pupil and teacher. For large classes, this is a valuable 
artifice, as it greatly multiplies individual work. In nor- 
mal work, it is found to be admirable for practice teach- 
ing. The wide-awake teacher may use the reciprocal 
method sparingly, but must never rely upon it. Nothing 
can take the place of individual teaching. 

V. The Conceet Method. — The members of a sec- 
tion or of the entire class answer together. To overcome 
timidity, to quicken the interest, or to fix a fact, this 
method may be used sparingly. With young pupils, 
about one fourth of the recitation may be conducted in 
this way. But, as the pupils advance, it will be used less 
and less. In some subjects concert work affords a valu- 
able drill. It may be advantageously used to a limited 
extent in all classes, but especially in oral work. 

Danger. The exclusive concert method is a sure cure 
for study. Concert teaching is showy but shallow, and 
is favored by "fuss and feather" teachers. The honest 
teacher will use the concert method sparingly. 

Other approved class methods are omitted, as there is danger 
of perplexing the young teacher. The orator, -while speaking, 
never thinks of the principles of elocution, or the intonation of 
his voice. The artist seems inspired, hut hard work is the source 
of the inspiration. "While teaching, the educational artist seldom 
thinks of principles or methods. Having mastered hoth, he intui- 
tively pursues the method hest suited to his purpose at the time. 
He is the master of all methods, but the slave of none. 



344 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

CHAPTER V. 

QUESTIONABLE, ERRONEOUS, AND ANTIQUATED CLASS 
METHODS. 

I. Questionable Class Methods. — Some methods 
not wholly bad are modestly classed as questionable. "We 
strongly advise against such methods. Use only sound 
methods. 

1. Turning Doivn is wrong in principle and unsatis- 
factory in practice. This method lingers in remote dis- 
tricts, but is rarely used in good schools ; in fact, it de- 
serves to be classed with antiquated methods. True emu- 
lation must be secured by other and better means. 

2. Daily Marking is a relic of the old education, and 
is an incubus and a mistake. Unphilosophical, it tends to 
mislead teacher and pupil. It wastes precious time and 
gives no equivalent. As a rule, pupils should not be 
marked oftener than once in two weeks. To this rule 
there are exceptions. No marking is the other extreme. 

3. The Exclusive Question and Answer Method is 
more than questionable ; it is pernicious. The teacher 
ceases to be an instructor, and becomes a mere interroga- 
tion point. The children are kept in leading-strings and 
literally starved. Text-books constructed on this method 
should be consigned to the moles and bats. Any teacher 
suspected of this method should be court-martialed, and, 
if found guilty, should be at once dismissed from the ser- 
vice. In a past age school-keepers were permitted to ask 
questions from the boofc, and pupils were required to an- 
swer in the language of the book. The modern teacher 
closes the book and constructs his own questions, instruct- 
ing as well as questioning. In the modern school, the 



ERRONEOUS CLASS METHODS. 345 

learner studies the subject and constructs his own an- 
swers. 

4. Any Exclusive Method is Bad. A violin with a 
single string, a piano with but one key, and a teacher 
with but one method, are an unmusical trio. Like the 
musician, the teacher should command the entire key- 
board of his art. The slave of a method should be eman- 
cipated before he is permitted to enter the school-room. 

II. Erroneous Class Methods. — Their name is 
legion. To this category belong all methods that violate 
well-established educational principles. 

1. The Parrot Method. The pupil commits the les- 
son, and recites it verbatim. Pursuing this method, the 
Chinese have made no progress in twenty centuries. This, 
the worst of all methods, is a favorite with mere school- 
keepers. 

2. The Cramming Method. Thorough digestion is as 
essential to mental as to physical growth. Cramming 
is fatal to digestion. Child-mind assimilates knowledge 
slowly. Mental food requires to be adapted to the capa- 
city of the learner, both as to quantity and quality. Per- 
fect digestion promotes growth, and gives us strong men 
arid women ; cramming produces mental dyspepsia, and 
gives us learned weaklings. 

3. The Drifting Method. System conditions efficiency. 
The teacher who meets his class without a plan must fail. 
Well may men and angels weep to see the vast herds of 
drifting teachers. Without chart or compass, they are 
blown hither and thither by every breeze of fancy or wind 
of caprice. Unfortunate pupils ! The true teacher ma- 
tures well his plans, and works to them. 

III. Antiquated Class Methods. — Pod augers, 
wooden mold-board plows, old washing machines, and 



346 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

antiquated class methods will doubtless receive due at- 
tention in the "curiosity shop" of the coming Dickens. 
We can only give samples. 

1. The One-at-a-Time Method. The old schoolmaster 
tried to hear his pupils one at a time, thus squandering 
nine tenths of his time. Classification has increased the 
teacher's power twenty fold. 

2. The Consecutive Method. The old schoolmaster, at 
a later period, called on his pupils in regular order. He 
was sometimes called "Old Next," because, when a word 
was misspelled, or a question missed, he would shout, 
"Next ! next ! next !" This method was found to be a 
sure cure for attention. 

3. The Machine Method. The old schoolmaster asked 
the questions in the book, and assigned the next lesson. 
Sometimes he made the class take the lesson oyer. A 
machine that could ask questions would serve about the 
same purpose. 

4. The Ciphering Method. The pupils "ciphered," 
and the old schoolmaster worked the "sums" for them. 
The big boys would cipher all day, and would take the 
hard "sums" to the master, who would often work hours 
on a single "sum." 

Conditions of Peogeess. — Most of the erroneous and anti- 
quated methods referred to in this chapter were in common use 
within the memory of persons still living. Their disappearance 
and the substitution of better methods are striking evidences of 
educational progress. That we may continue to make steady 
and rapid progress, we must act in accordance with well-defined 
principles. 

1. The Achievements of one Educator or one People must bo 
made common property. 

2. Bad Methods, like Poisons, should be Labeled. Teacher-life 
is short and child-life is precious. Unnecessary experimenting is 



ART OF QUESTIONING. 347 

criminal. When theory and experience determine a method to 
be bad, let it be laid aside for ever. Methods approved by tho 
thought and experience of the race are safe. 

3. The Teacher must keep himself en Rapport with the Edu- 
cators and Educational Movements of the World. Educational 
associations, teachers 1 institutes, school visitation, educational 
journals, and educational books furnish ample means. The art 
of teaching is based on the science of education. In view of the 
infinite interests involved, how profoundly we ought to study tho 
immortal being committed to our guidance! "We ought to mas- 
ter the laws of human development, and become familiar with the 
means of human culture. "We should make our own the achieve- 
ments of the educational world. Then will we be able with cer- 
tainty to apply educational means to educational ends, in accord- 
ance with educational principles. Then will our methods be 
necessarily good, because founded in law. Then will we be able 
to produce results of which the mass of our teachers, even now, 
scarcely dream. 



CHAPTER VI. 

AET OF QUESTIONING, 



I. Principles underlying the Art of Questioning. 

1. Questions must be adapted to the Capacity of the Pupil. 
(1.) "What is it ?— For children. 
(2.) How is it ?— For boys and girls. 
(3.) Why is it?— For youth. 
(4.) Whence is it? — For manhood. 
The matter, manner, and form of questioning should be adapted to 
the age and development of the learner, and to the nature of the subject. 

* This subject is fully discussed in the "Art of Teaching." The out- 
line is given here to show the bearing of the art of questioning on school 
management. The productions of several authors have been freely used 
in this outline, but chiefly those of James EL Hoose. 



348 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

Three stages of development should be recognized : early childhood, youth, 
and beginning maturity. Teaching questions, especially, should conform 
to the obvious laws of mental suggestion and association. 

2. Questioning is Better than Telling. 

(1.) The learner is led to discover for himself. 
(2.) The learner is trained to do independent work. 
(3.) The learner is incited to greater mental activity. 

3. Questioning is a great Mental Force. 

(1.) It directs effort. 

(2.) It awakens thought and stimulates activity. 

(3.) It leads to close observation. 

(4.) It trains the pupil to analyze and synthetize. 

4. Questions should follow Each Other in a Logical Order. 

(1.) The questioner must have a well-defined object in 

view. 
(2.) The question must logically lead to its evolution. 

5. Questioning carried too far is Injurious. 

(1.) It confuses and bewilders. 

(2.) It fosters a dependence on the questions. 

II. General Statements pertaining to the Art of Questioning. 

1. Questioning implies two Parties: 

(1.) The teacher, who understands, and is prepared to 

assist the learner ; 
(2.) The learner, who does not understand, and who 

needs assistance. 

2. The Efficient Instructor is Master of the Art of Questioning. 

(1.) He constructs his own questions. 
(2.) He adapts his questions to the learner and to the 
subject. 

3. As to Subject Matter the Question is : 

(1.) What is this or that ? or, 

(2.) How is this or that ? or, 

(3.) Why is this or that thus or so ? or, 

(4.) Whence is this or that? 



ART OF QUESTIONING. 349 

4. The Teacher must Remember that the Pupil gains a Knowl- 

edge — 

(1.) Of the objective world by sense perception ; 

(2.) Of the subjective world by conscious perception ; 

(3.) Of the relation world by thought and imagination ; 

(4.) And tbat all knowledge is reproduced by a well- 
trained memory. 

5. Wlien the Learner is unable to Advance he may with Pro- 

priety aslcfor Aid. 

The prerequisites on the part of the teacher for profitable questioning 
are a thorough knowledge of a subject and its relations ; a clear concep- 
tion of the important points of a subject, and of its difficulties ; some 
knowledge of the general laws of mental action, and of the special laws 
of suggestion and association ; and a knowledge of the condition and 
peculiarities of the learners. 

III. Objects of Questioning. 

1. To properly direct the efforts of the learner. 

2. To incite the pupil to think for himself. 

3. To lead the pupil to discover truth for himself. 

4. To arouse the dull and startle the inattentive. 

5. To bring out the important details of the subject. 

6. To test correctness and to correct errors. 

IV. Questioning- in Class Management. 

1. In general the question should be propounded to the entire 

class. 

2. Give a moment for each one to think and raise hand. 

3. Call on any one in the class for a part or all of the answer. 

4. Each member of the class must be held responsible for 

each answer. 

5. The instructor should listen attentively and patiently to 

each answer. 

V. Questions fob Written Examinations. 

1. Give questions involving principles and the application of 
principles. 



350 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

2. Give questions requiring definite answers. 

3. Give questions involving the pupil's general knowledge of 

the subject. 

4. Avoid technical questions and puzzles. 

5. Be liberal and just in marking the answers. 

VI. Objectionable Questions. 

1. Leading questions. " The world is round, is it not? Yes." 

2. Questions that indicate the answer. " Did Columbus dis- 

cover America? " 

3. Questions of the alternate form. ''Is the world round or 

square? " 

4. Questions that quote part of the answer. " Arithmetic is 

the science of what? " 

5. Questions that suggest the answer: (1.) By language; (2.) 

By emphasis; (3.) By inflection; or (4.) By the expres- 
sion. 

VII. Questions to be Avoided. 

1. Avoid questions that include too much. 

2. Avoid pointless or silly questions. 

3. Avoid " Mil-time " questions. 

4. Avoid pert questions, merely designed to display your 

sharpness. 

5. Avoid pedantic questions, merely designed to display your 

learning. 

6. Avoid all haphazard questions. 

All questions should be clear and definite, both in thought and lan- 
guage. Teaching questions may be suggestive ; testing questions should 
neither involve nor suggest the answer. Teaching questions should be 
put slowly ; examination questions may, on many subjects, be put rapidly. 
Teaching questions may be answered by a class collectively ; testing 
questions should usually be answered by individuals. 

VIII. Answers. — The answer should be — (1.) To the poiut ; 
(2.) Clear; (3.) Direct; (4.) Concise; (5.) Definite; (6.) Complete; 
and (V.) Original. 



GOLDEN HINTS TO TEACHERS. 351 

CHAPTER VII. 

GOLDEN HINTS TO TEACHERS. 

I. The Seven Laws of Teaching. (President 
Gregory.) 

1. Know thoroughly and familiarly whatever you would 
teach. 

2. Gain and keep the attention of your pupils, and excite their 
interest in the subject. 

3. Use language which your pupils fully understand, and clear- 
ly explain every new word required. 

4. Begin with what is already known, and proceed to the un- 
known by easy and natural steps. 

5. Excite the self-activities of the pupils, and lead them to 
discover the truth for themselves. 

6. Require pupils to re-state, fully and correctly, in their own 
language, and with their own proofs and illustrations, the truth 
taught them. 

7. Review, review, review, carefully, thoroughly, repeatedly, 
with fresh consideration and thought. 

These laws underlie and control all successful teaching. Nothing 
need be added to them ; nothing can be safely taken away. No one who 
will thoroughly master and use them need fail as a teacher, provided he 
will also maintain the good order which is required to give free and un 
disturbed action to these laws. 

II. Preparation of Lessons. (President Greg- 
ory.) 

1. Prepare each lesson by fresh study. Last year's knowledge 
Las necessarily faded somewhat. Only fresh conceptions warm 
and inspire us. 

2. Find in the lesson its analogies and likenesses. In these lie 
the illustrations by which it can be made to reveal itself to others. 

3. Find the natural order and connection of the different facts 



352 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

and truths of the lesson. A jumbled mass of materials does not 
make a building, nor does a jumble of disjointed facts make up a 
science. 

4. Seek for the relations of the lesson to other lessons already 
learned, and to the life and duty of the learners. The vital force 
of truth lies in its relations. It is the passage of the electric fire 
along the distant connected wires which makes the telegraphic 
apparatus important. 

5. Use freely all aids to gain the truth, hut never pause till 
the truth gained has been thoroughly digested in your own mind, 
and its full meaning and importance have arisen upon you as a 
vision seen by your own eyes. 

6. Study the lesson till its truths and facts take shape in easy 
and familiar language. The final proof and product of clear 
thought is clear speech. 

III. Peactical Kules to be Taught to Pupils. 

1. Stand or sit erect. Stand while reciting. 

2. At signals, move promptly, quickly, and quietly. 

3. Give your entire attention during the whole recitation. 

4. Be courteous to your teacher and fellow pupils. 

5. Answer in your own words. 

6. Answer in complete sentences. 

7. Eaise your hand when you (a) can answer the question ; 
(5) disagree with an answer; (c) wish to criticise; (d) wish to 
ask a question. 

8. Never speak without permission. 

9. Speak in a medium tone. Speak distinctly and energeti- 
cally. 

10. Never prompt. Be honest and independent. 

IV. Conditions of Success. (Prof. B. S. Potter.) 

1. Earnestness from a deep interest in the work. 

2. Knowledge from actual experience. 

3. Aptitude to teach, enforced by a mastery of the art of 
teaching. 

4. System both in teaching and managing. 



GOLDEN HINTS TO TEACHERS. 353 

5. Ability to detect and correct one's own failures. 

6. Hard work from a thirst for knowledge and a love of teach- 
ing. 

V. Seckets of Success. (Prof. W. P. Nason.) 

1. The teacher must be able to seize and impress the princi- 
pal points in the lesson. 

2. The teacher must hold the interested attention of the class 
till all have mastered the point under consideration. 

3. Difficult and important points must be frequently reviewed. 

4. Each member of the class must be kept interested and busy. 

5. General class drill should constitute a part of the recitation. 

6. "Work, and manage to have your pupils work, with enthusi- 
asm and energy. 

7. Talk to the point, talk well, but avoid too much talking. 

VI. A Model School. ("Visitor.") 

1. Principles. (1.) Each study was divided into subjects in 
their natural order ; each subject into its logical division ; each 
division into the steps of its development ; each step into lesson- 
steps ; each lesson-step into lessons, each containing but one new 
idea, and so simple that the teacher could give all the necessary 
illustrations and instruction. 

(2.) In the primary and intermediate classes no facts or prin- 
ciples were given to commit to memory as a tasTc; memory sim- 
ply recorded the use, in a variety of exercises which directly or 
indirectly referred to the senses. 

(3.) Every lesson was thoroughly understood and applied be- 
fore the next was presented to the attention. 

(4.) No time was wasted in trying to illustrate or explain what 
the pupils, on aocount of age or lack of experience, were unable 
to understand. 

(5.) In advanced classes the principles of generalization were 
deduced from primary and intermediate practice. 

2. Practice. (1.) Close classification, in which pupils of the 
same degree of advancement only were placed in the same class. 

(2.) The lessons were given in a brief, pointed, and methodical 



354 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

manner, with no extra words to obscure the sense. In every case, 
when possible, the pupils repeated the illustration of the teacher 
with the objects in their own hands. 

(3.) The text-book was used in class to furnish exercises for a 
review rather than as a manual of instruction. 

(4.) No lesson was recited that the preparation did not in some 
way exercise the judgment in discriminating and comparing, culti- 
vate neatness and taste in penmanship, and correctness of orthog- 
raphy or punctuation, or require skill in the logical order of ar- 
rangement on the slate or blackboard. 

(5.) In recitation the teacher had nothing to say by way of 
assistance. Pupils were required to ask questions as often as to 
answer them. 

(6.) Short and prompt recitations, the time being from ten to 
thirty minutes. 

(7.) Nearly double the usual time was given to the primary 
and intermediate grades ; consequently not so much time was re- 
quired in the advanced grades to make the same progress. 

3. Results. As a result of the above system, habits of per- 
sonal industry in the school-room were secured in a remarkable 
degree. No special system of discipline was required ; the pupils 
apparently had no time for mischief. Every recitation was an 
eminent success or a positive failure ; no blundering, no helping, 
no make-believe. Self-confidence was based upon actual ability 
and not upon self-concession. 

VII. Effects of Method. (J. W. Eichardson.) 
There is a prevailing opinion existing in the minds of a certain 
class of educators, that methods are of little importance. Many 
go further than this, and believe that to make our acts conform 
to a method is to give them a mechanical character, which de- 
prives them of all appearance of being the products either of ge- 
nius or of a free intelligence. 

Such opinions are especially mischievous in our educational 
affairs, as they encourage educators to think little of the philoso- 
phy of education, or of those general principles on which alone 
can be founded either a true science or art of teaching. Every 



GOLDEN HINTS TO TEACHERS. 355 

intelligent act implies a knowledge of its end from its beginning. 
All ends produced by human agency are produced by tbe use of 
some means. Success in attaining ends depends on two tbings — 
on tbe use of tbe rigbt means, and on using tbem in tbe right way. 
Tbe way of using means, or of performing our acts, is called 
method. 

Those who have no definite methods to use have no definite 
ends to obtain. But all teaching worthy of the name has its 
known ends to accomplish. 

Teaching occasions knowledge, development, and method. 
Whenever tbe mind exerts its power in a rigbt manner upon ap- 
propriate objects of thought, it becomes conscious of two results. 
One result is the possession of new knowledge; tbe other is an 
increased facility in the exercise of the powers by whose activity 
knowledge is acquired. Tbe facility is mental training. The fac- 
ulties are trained by their rigbt use in doing what they would ac- 
quire the power of doing. . . . The third result produced by a 
method of teaching is found in the method of thinking or study 
it communicates. Not much knowledge or mental discipline can 
be obtained by the longest courses of study now taught in our 
schools ; but a good method of teaching will always present a good 
plan of study, and occasion that discipline of mind which will en- 
able it to use tbe plan in the further pursuit of knowledge after 
the pupil has left his school. 

"Teachers have their individuality, which shows itself in 
greater or less degrees in their school-room practice, while apply- 
ing philosophical methods of teaching. This individuality is ex- 
hibited in the way that one teacher illustrates a point differently 
from another; in the way be speaks; in tbe way he looks; in the 
way he thinks, it may be ; in the way in which his questions are 
conceived ; in the impromptu expedients which he devises ; in 
what in general is called 'his way of doing things.' This individ- 
uality of the teacher is known as manner. Misapprehension of 
tbe true province of scientific methods of teaching has led many 
to apply the term to any peculiar experiment or expedient which 
may be selected, which things are, in fact, but examples of man- 
ner.' 1 (James H. Hoose, " Methods of Teaching.") 



PART VII. 

EXAMINATIONS, RECORDS, AND GRADUA- 
TION. 



CHAPTER I.— School Examinations. 
II. — Masking Gkades. 
III. — School Records and Repobts. 
IV. — Geaduating System foe Elementaey Schools. 



PART SEVENTH. 

EXAMINATIONS, RECORDS, AND GRADUATION. 



Examinations, records, promotions, reports, and 
graduation are important factors in school management. 
Enthusiasts chafe, and visionaries theorize, but the philo- 
sophic educator finds these expedients as valuable as they 
are necessary. Machinery implies friction, and without 
machinery achievement is impossible. The time has come, 
however, for a calm and critical reexamination of the 
entire subject. Many abuses and some hideous practices 
must be corrected ; the drudgery must be reduced to the 
minimum ; teachers must be trained to subordinate ma- 
chinery to culture ; but all attempts of well-meaning 
sentimentalists to pooh-pooh necessary agencies out of 
school work will prove harmless. 



CHAPTER I. 

SCHOOL EXAMINATION'S. 

A school examination is a good servant, but a bad 
master. When rightly managed, good results are ob- 



360 EXAMINATIONS, RECORDS, AND GRADUATION. 

tained ; when unwisely managed, it becomes a cruel in- 
strument of torture. Unwise management, abuses, and 
extremes have created prejudice and opposition. When 
the abuses have been corrected, the objections will dis- 
appear, and examinations will be welcomed by both pu- 
pils and teachers. 

I. Objects of Examination". — Why do we examine ? 
Simply to supplement good teaching. Some special ob- 
jects deserve mention. 

1. To stimulate Pupils to master Subjects. Smatter- 
ers dread examinations, but thorough scholars welcome 
them. When the subject is once mastered, the pupil is 
always prepared for examination. The certainty that the 
work will be examined, and examined thoroughly, is a 
powerful but legitimate stimulus to effort. 

2. To incite Pupils to Iceep Knowledge ready for Use. 
Examinations test mental power and the mastery of prin- 
ciples. Pupils are stimulated to frequently review sub- 
jects ; thus their knowledge is deepened and widened. 

3. To secure Valuable Data for Promotions, Records, 
and Reports. To base the pupil's standing wholly on ex- 
aminations is a great educational blunder, but to disre- 
gard examinations is a greater one. 

"Education should be a training to promote insight, power of 
thought, and facility in acquiring knowledge. Perception, not 
memory, should be cultivated ; and as the student can advance 
only by his own endeavors, he should be led through such a 
course of labor and original thought that he may come out 
an independent thinker, as well as a thorough scholar, in such 
branches of education as he has inclination for. To obtain such 
a training, examinations should be means, not ends." 

II. What should the Examination be ? — Not 
killing to both body and mind ; not an instrument of tor- 



SCHOOL EXAMINATIONS. 361 

ture ; not a grinding slavery to teachers and pupils ; not 
a stimulus to cramming ; not a discouragement to study. 

1. As to Matter. The examination should be con- 
fined to what the pupil ought to know, or ought to be 
able to do. No puzzles, nor questions designed to exhibit 
the examiner's knowledge, are admissible. 

2. As to Method. The examination should be a test 
of the ability and acquirements of the pupil, not of his 
power to memorize. Does the pupil really understand 
the subject ? Has he the ability to express well what he 
knows ? "With the view of ascertaining these facts, the 
examination should be conducted. 

3. As to Questions and Topics. The examination must 
be made searching and thorough. The questions should 
be pointed and clear, requiring brief and definite answers. 
Principles, plain problems involving principles, essential 
definitions, leading features, and work to be done are the 
points to be pressed. 

Caution. — Avoid unimportant details, dates, and technicalities ; 
avoid puzzles, catches, and everything ambiguous. Let every 
question be clear, concise, and to the point. Avoid all questions 
that merely test verbal memory, or show the smartness of the 
examiner. 

4. As to Preparation. Examination should be so 
arranged as to foster genuine study and discourage all 
cramming. Pupils soon learn that nothing counts in 
real examinations but a thorough understanding of the 
subject, and that special cramming for examination will 
always manifest itself to their injury. ISTo lesson should 
be studied or recited with reference to examination. Pu- 
pils should become so absorbed in their work that when ex- 
aminations do come, each is delighted to tell what he knows. 

16 



362 EXAMINATIONS, RECORDS, AND GRADUATION. 

Mistakes. — All cramming and hurried preparation for exam- 
inations are ulcers indicating disease; the teaching is wrong; 
the examination is wrong ; the system is wrong. The reconstruc- 
tion of such schools must be radical and complete. Instead of 
educating, they stuff ; instead of developing, they dwarf. 

III. When" shall we Examine ? — Not at stated 
times, or so frequently as to oppress pupils and teachers. 
Whenever the teacher is satisfied that it will do good, he 
should examine the class. Pupils properly taught are 
always prepared, and hence need not know when an 
examination will occur. Eegular examinations at the 
close of the month or quarter would better be abandoned; 
the evil more than counterbalances the good. At some 
time, during each period of from four to six weeks, each 
class should be carefully examined. As no time is fixed, 
there is no hasty preparation or feverish anticipation. 
Too frequent examinations burden the teacher and dis- 
turb the regular order of work. 

IV. Oral and Written. — How shall we examine ? 
Shall we make it oral or written ? I answer, let the oral 
and written be combined. In good teaching, each lesson 
is a review and an examination. Oral and written work 
occupy about equal time. An examination differs from 
a recitation in omitting instruction, and simply testing 
the pupil. With large classes, the written work is the 
principal test ; but, with ordinary classes, the oral, equally 
with the written examination, is used. This combination 
is better every way ; it relieves the tension, and affords 
each pupil a guarantee of fairness. 

V. Length of Examinations. — Written examina- 
tions should be brief. Five questions may be made as 
good a test as fifty. Lengthy examinations wear out the 
pupils, and grading the papers wears out the teachers. 



MARKING GRADES. 363 

The effort is necessarily severe, and the time should he 
correspondingly short. The average length of examina- 
tions may well be reduced one half, and this will remove 
a leading objection to examinations. 

VI. Examinations foe Pbomotion and Geadita- 
tion. — The examinations should undoubtedly constitute 
one of the conditions of promotion or graduation. Is it 
the most prominent condition ? I think not. The reci- 
tation standing of the pupil is the estimate of all his class 
work during the month or term. Let this be multiplied 
by four, the average of his examination grades added, and 
the sum. divided by five. The result is his class standing, 
and can hardly be otherwise than a fair estimate of the 
pupil's standing ; but, in case of doubt, let the pupil be 
further tested in a private oral examination. Such a 
course is so eminently reasonable and just as to disarm all 
opposition. 



CHAPTER II. 

MARKING geades 



Simplicity should characterize school mechanism. 
The teacher and the pupils must be left untrammeled. 
Spontaneous and glad effort is the law of growth. In so 
far as mechanism enhances spontaneity, it is desirable ; 
whenever it fetters, or cramps, or represses, it should be 
modified or thrown aside. 

Marking is considered a mechanical necessity in every 
well-ordered school, and, when judiciously used, is a wise 
educational expedient. At longer or shorter intervals 



364: EXAMINATIONS, RECORDS, AND GRADUATION. 

nearly all successful teachers, in some way, mark the 
achievements of their pupils. 

I. Objects op Marking. — Every act of the teacher 
should have a well-defined object. The objects of mark- 
ing are : 

1. To Stimulate Effort. The true teacher is delight- 
ed with success and grieved by failure. By words, and 
looks, and marks he expresses his pleasure or pain. The 
aim of the pupil in studying should be to know, yet the 
recorded approval of the teacher is a strong incentive to 
effort. 

2. To Indicate the Achievements of the Pupils. The 
teacher will thus be enabled to do the best for his pupils. 
It is not wise to trust to memory always. Even the ora- 
tor finds notes helpful. To the teacher they are indis- 
pensable. 

3. To Unable the Teacher to Make reliable Records and 
Reports. Teachers are changed, pupils are promoted, 
and courses of study are completed. Parents and school 
officers justly expect trustworthy records and reports. 
Careful marking furnishes necessary data. 

II. Criteria for Marking.— Marking is a difficult 
art. Effort, attainments, and growth are to be estimated, 
and the comparative results are to be expressed in figures. 
At best, the percentages are but approximate judgments. 

1. Effort deserves the Fullest Recognition. Let each 
step which the pupil masters by earnest effort be noted, 
that he may realize his progress. Many a hard-working- 
pupil becomes discouraged and loses heart because he can 
not perceive that he improves. As soon as he becomes 
conscious that he has accomplished a little, he will redou- 
ble his efforts to accomplish more. Determined effort de- 
serves all possible encouragement, because it points to 



MARKING GRADES. 365 

boundless possibilities. Well-directed and persistent ef- 
fort ultimately wins. 

2. Originality and Independence deserve Special Rec- 
ognition. The pupil is encouraged to work his problems 
in his own way, to present his thoughts in his own lan- 
guage, and to form and express his own views upon every 
subject. All glib parrot reciting must be discouraged. 

3. Real Attainments must receive Due Credit. — Suc- 
cess is tangible. The pupil masters principles and read- 
ily applies them. He steadily grows stronger as well 
as wiser. Marks should as nearly as possible show his 
achievements and his relative strength. 

How to Mark. — (1.) Duly weigh effort, originality, and at- 
tainments ; mark in view of all. (2.) Study your pupils ; if you 
err, let it be in the pupil's favor. (3.) Be not an unfeeling mark- 
ing-machine ; your mission is to encourage and help. (4.) Be 
impartial ; mark favorites below, rather than above, and unfortu- 
nates above your estimate, rather than below. Your feelings may 
bias your judgment ; you need to make due allowance for uncon- 
scious aberrations. 

III. Frequency of Marking. — Once a week does 
well. For most classes, once in two weeks is sufficient. 
Many teachers find once a month satisfactory and alto- 
gether sufficient. Pupils never know when they will be 
marked. If the mark is low, the teacher redoubles his 
efforts ; the pupil is encouraged, and tested again and 
again ; if finally merited, a higher mark is inserted in 
place of the low mark. 

Teaching versus Marking. — (1.) Marking-machines belong 
to a past age. Few schools can now bear the incubus of daily 
marking. (2.) Daily marking exerts a baleful influence. Pupils 
are stimulated to study to recite, rather than to know. (3.) The 



366 EXAMINATIONS, RECORDS, AND GRADUATION. 

business of the teacher is teaching, not marking. Daily marking 
wastes much of his energy. No marking is better than daily 
marking. (4.) Marking must never interfere with teaching, but 
must be done at such moments as the teacher is free. 

IV. The Scale of Marking. — By common consent, 
from 1 to 100 has been adopted as the best scale. 

1. 90 to 100 denote excellent. These grades should be 
given only in cases of decided merit. Unmeaning and 
careless marking does great injury. Flattery is sin. 

2. 80 to 90 denote good. These grades indicate de- 
cided satisfaction on the part of the teacher. 

3. 60 to 80 indicate passable. No effort should be 
spared to bring each pupil up to this standard. 

4. Below 60 means unsatisfactory. Poor marks should 
rarely be permanently recorded. Use your utmost re- 
sources to secure interest and work. Test the pupil again 
and again. Wait days and even weeks before finally re- 
cording a grade below 60. 

Eemaeks. — (1.) Pupils may or may not be permitted to see the 
register. Usually it will be found better not to have the pupils 
see it. (2.) In all reports to parents, the words excellent, good, 
passable, and unsatisfactory are given, and not the figures. The 
same course is pursued whenever pupils are informed of their 
grades. (3.) The exact figures are for the teacher and his succes- 
sors. (4.) Written and oral work are marked on the same basis. 
(5.) No marking and daily marking are extremes to be avoided. 
The thoughtful teacher will not mark his pupils, as a rule, more 
frequently than once a week, nor less frequently than once each 
month. (6.) The pupil is not marked on a single answer or a 
single recitation, but upon a series of answers and a succession of 
recitations. (7.) A clear head and an honest heart are essential 
to successful marking. (8.) Honest work must be secured at any 
cost. 



SCHOOL RECORDS AND REPORTS. 367 

CHAPTER III. 

SCHOOL RECORDS AND KEPORTS. 

I. Form. — For ungraded schools the records and re- 
ports must be in the simplest possible form, involving lit- 
tle labor and less skill. Most school registers now pub- 
lished are so well arranged that no teacher need fail to 
keep a correct record. The blanks usually furnished for 
reports explain themselves, so that mistakes in filling out 
are inexcusable. 

II. Value. — Records and reports, properly kept, aid 
in many ways. 

1. They help the Teacher. Since conditions and re- 
sults must be recorded and reported, the teacher is stim- 
ulated to do his best. Slipshod work is discouraged. 
Moreover, the teacher having the records before him is 
better prepared to do his pupils justice ; and, because of 
the permanency of the record, he is far less likely to do 
injustice to any pupil. 

2. Records are a Great Aid to the New Teacher. 
Barbarians make no records. Schools without records 
are in a barbarous condition, as the new teacher has no- 
thing to guide him. Well-kept records enable the new 
teacher to begin where his predecessor left off. 

3. Records aid School Officers. County superinten- 
dents and school-boards may readily determine the condi- 
tion of a school, and take intelligent action with reference 
to it, if the records are complete and reliable. Without 
such records, official action is likely to be blind action. 

III. The School Register. — For ungraded schools 
one book is sufficient. Most registers are arranged for 
the following purposes : 



368 EXAMINATIONS, RECORDS, AND REPORTS. 

1. Enrollment. The names and ages of pupils, the 
times of entrance, and parents' names are carefully record- 
ed each term. In case of withdrawal or removal, the 
time and its cause should be noted opposite the name of 
the pupil. 

2. Attendance. The roll may be arranged alphabeti- 
cally, and the teacher may call the names. This is the 
approved plan in small schools. In large schools, num- 
bers may be assigned to pupils, each calling his own num- 
ber ; or, the division leaders may name absentees. The 
latter method has decided advantages. The teacher calls 
" Division A." The pupils belonging to this division rise, 
and the leader reports the absentees. Divisions B, C, and 
D, in like manner, are called in turn. The teacher marks 
each absentee on the roll. In this way, the roll of any 
school may be called in less than one minute. In all 
cases, absentees alone are marked ; no mark means pres- 
ent. The attendance roll is called at the close of each 
half-clay session. 

3. Tardy Roll. This roll may be called at the begin- 
ning of each half -day session. The — mark means tardy ; 
when explained satisfactorily, the — is changed to + , but 
the record is permanent. 

4. Class Rolls. These rolls show the recitation and 
examination grades and the class-standing of the mem- 
bers of each class. The average of the class grades in the 
branch, multiplied by four and added to the average writ- 
ten-examination grades, and the sum divided by five, will 
give the class-standing for the month, term, or year. 

5. Reports. All reports should be recorded in the 
register. The register should always contain blanks for 
this purpose. 

6. Programme. The programme should also be re- 



SCHOOL RECORDS AND REPORTS. 369 

corded in the register, which should contain blanks for 
this purpose. The register should be preserved with as 
much care as the ledger of the merchant. The new 
teacher will find recorded in it the real condition of the 
school, and the data he needs in organizing. 

IV. Teachers' Eeports. — These should be such as 
impose the minimum of extra labor. Faithful teachers 
of ungraded schools are always overworked. 

1. Monthly Report Cards to Parents. JSTo grades are 
placed on these — simply the words, excellent, good, pass- 
able, poor. A foot-note explains that " excellent " means 
from 90 to 100; "good," from 80 to 90; "passable," 
from 60 to 80; "poor," below 60. These reports will 
include deportment as well as scholarship. Times absent 
and times tardy should also be reported. In no case 
should these reports be made oftener than once a month. 

2. Quarterly Reports to School-Boards. In these 
reports are given the total enrollment, the average atten- 
dance, the average class-standing of each pupil, and such 
other items as the blanks call for. To require these re- 
ports monthly is a useless imposition upon teachers. The 
laws should be so changed as to require only quarterly 
reports to school-boards, but monthly reports to superin- 
tendents. 

3. Reports to County Superintendents or County Com- 
missioners. A full report, containing items mentioned in 
the report to the school-board and such other items as may 
be required in the blank furnished, should be made at the 
close of each month to the county superintendent. In 
addition to the regular reports, special reports may be 
required at any time. Some superintendents now wisely 
require monthly reports from teachers, and thus keep 
themselves fully informed at all times as to the condition 



370 EXAMINATIONS, RECORDS, AND GRADUATION. 

of the schools under their charge. Only thus is efficient 
county supervision possible. 

4. Enforcement. — Statements that these reports have 
been made should condition the payment of salaries. 
When reports are required at the close of a quarter, the 
salary for the last month of the quarter should be with- 
held until the reports are made. 

V. Eepoet of County Supekintendent. — This 
should be made annually to the State superintendent 
and to the county school-board, consisting of the presi- 
dents of the several school-boards of the county. It should 
be printed in pamphlet form. This report may embrace : 

1. The Names of Teachers. Address, wages, and 
grade may be given ; also the class to which each one 
belongs in the institute. 

2. The Catalogue of Pupils. This should contain the 
names of all pupils enrolled during the year ; the division 
to which the pupil belongs will be indicated by the let- 
ter A, B, C, or D after the name. One page may be de- 
voted to each school. 

3. Names of Graduates. Pupils completing the ele- 
mentary course of study should be published as elemen- 
tary-school graduates. 

4. Financial Stateme?it. The report should exhibit 
all moneys received and paid out for school purposes by 
each school. 

5. Miscellaneous. This report should give the course 
of study and such general information as will tend to 
advance the educational interests of the country. 

Cost and Value. — Printing is cheap ; the cost of printing 
such a report would be insignificant, and its value would be 
great. It would establish a school system for the county. Each 
pupil would know his place in the line of advancement. All the 



GRADUATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 371 

teachers of the county would learn to work to a plan. As much 
interest would he taken in graduation from the district school as 
is now taken in graduation from higher institutions. The whole 
people would be interested. The utter confusion and waste now 
hanging as an incubus upon our country schools would be removed. 



CHAPTER IV. 

GRADUATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.* 

~No single educational measure can accomplish much. 
The systematic combination of all the essential agencies 
is necessary to great results. We have emphasized School 
Instrumentalities, School Organization, School Govern- 
ment, School Courses of Study, School Programmes, How 
to Study, and Class Management. Graduation is now 
presented as the crowning feature of our public-school 
system. 

I. Advantages of Graduation. — These are many 
and great. 

1. Graduation will greatly increase the Dignity and 
Efficiency of Elementary Schools. A well-defined course 
of study becomes a necessity. Untold thousands, who 
would otherwise not dream of such a thing, will be stim- 
ulated to complete the course. System will be made to 
pervade school work. The people, seeing the results, 

* Alexander M. Wade successfully used a system of graduation in 
Monongalia County, West Virginia, the first class graduating in 1876. 
Mr. Wade claims to have originated graduation as applicable to country 
schools, and his claim seems to be well founded. 



372 EXAMINATIONS, RECORDS, AND GRADUATION. 

will begin to esteem the common schools at their true 
value. 

2. Graduation will necessitate Thorough Teaching and 
Thorough Supervision. If it accomplishes no more than 
this, the system will be rich in valuable results. 

3. It will revolutionize our Educational System. 

" I give it as my deliberate conclusion, drawn from 
observation, that the introduction of the graduating sys- 
tem into the common schools of the country, under the 
management of an efficient superintendency, will produce 
as great a revolution in our educational system as that 
produced upon travel on land and sea by the application 
of steam." (Wade.) 

4. It will compel Method and Progress in Elementary 
Schools. 

" All education should be conducted with method ; a 
rational progress, toward a definite end, is the secret of 
success in every undertaking. 

" There ought to be a beginning, a regular order of 
progress, and an end to the elementary course of instruc- 
tion. A graduation system is admirably calculated to in- 
fuse system and progress. 

" I suggest that authority be given to prescribe a reg- 
ular course of elementary instruction, to be generally fol- 
lowed in the schools, with provision for the examination 
and graduation of all pupils who satisfactorily complete 
it." (State Superintendent W. K. Pendleton.) 

II. Written Examinations and Grades. — A few 
weeks before the close of the schools in the township, the 
county superintendent will furnish each teacher with a 
list of fifty questions, covering the elementary course. 
Two Saturdays will be devoted to the written examina- 
tion. The papers of each candidate for graduation will 



GRADUATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 373 

be bound separately, and graded by the teacher. These 
papers, with a certified statement of the class-standing 
of each applicant, will be forwarded to the county super- 
intendent. 

III. Examining Committee. — This committee may 
be the same as for the examination of teachers and insti- 
tute classes, consisting of the county superintendent and 
three professional teachers. The State superintendent 
may appoint one, the county superintendent one, and the 
normal institute association one. This plan gives dig- 
nity and unity to the work, and insures thoroughness. 
It is evidently far more satisfactory than the plan of hav- 
ing the superintendent do all the work. 

IV. Examination by Townships. — The municipal 
township is now made the unit, for school purposes, in 
some States, and educators with one voice demand that it 
be made such in all the States. The schools of a township 
are thus placed under one management, opening and clos- 
ing at the same time. The Friday on which the schools 
of one township close may be devoted to the examination. 
In another township the following Saturday may be used. 
Thus the schools of two townships may be closed each 
week without interfering with the regular school work. 

V. Graduation Days. — The largest convenient 
building in the township will be needed for these exer- 
cises. The morning will be devoted to a public examina- 
tion of the candidates by the committee. The afternoon 
will be devoted to the graduating exercises. Nothing 
else can so interest the entire community. The people 
must have tangible results. 

VI. Elementary-School Diploma. — The diploma 
will be beautiful but unpretentious. With it will be con- 
ferred the degree, Elementary- School Graduate. The 



374 EXAMINATIONS, RECOKDS, AND GRADUATION. 

diploma will be signed by the teacher and the county 
superintendent, and will entitle the pupil to admission to 
any high school without further examination. 

VII. Alumni Association. — This will be a perma- 
nent organization, embracing all the elementary-school 
graduates in the township. The association will meet 
annually on graduation day, and will give a public enter- 
tainment on the evening of that day. At each meeting 
members will be elected to deliver orations, read essays, 
and declaim at the next meeting. 

VIII. Annual Catalogues. 

" Each school occupies one page in the catalogue. 
The name of the school, the name of the teacher, num- 
ber of youths entitled to attend, number of youths on 
teacher's roll, daily average attendance, daily per cent, 
of attendance, branches taught and number of pupils 
studying each branch, the names of graduates and under- 
graduates — all these points of interest are presented in 
the report of each school. No volume of the same cost, 
except the Bible, is so interesting to the families of a 
county as the book that contains the names and grades of 
the children attending the public schools." (Wade.) 

Eemaeks. — Without a well-planned course of study, compe- 
tent teachers, and efficient county supervision, a graduating scheme 
for elementary schools will prove a farce ; wherever tried under 
favorable circumstances, it has proved immensely popular and 
highly beneficial. We do not favor hobbies and hobbyists, but 
we certainly find here a key to the elevation of country schools. 

IX. GRADUATION IN THE HlGH SCHOOL. — Two 

courses are every way desirable, each embracing the work 
of two years. 

1. Junior Course. This course embraces the work of 
the first and second years in the high school. Upon its 
completion the student will receive the junior high-school 



GRADUATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 375 

diploma, A large proportion of the students will be 
stimulated to complete the course. Otherwise, few would 
attempt it. 

2. Senior Course. The third and fourth years in the 
high school are included in this course. The high school 
diploma, with the degree, High-School Graduate, should 
entitle the student to admission to any college, without 
further examination. 

Kesults. — Give us a central high school in every township. 
Let the principal of this school be ex officio principal of all the 
ungraded schools in the township. Give us an able county super- 
intendency. Give us a wisely adjusted system of graduation, ex- 
tending from the elementary school to the university. Give us 
these with the accompanying agencies, and you will witness educa- 
tional progress such as the world has never seen. 

Wkitten Examinations. — As an expression of the general 
feeling, we take the following from the " Pacific School Jour- 
nal " : " It is time to utter a word of solemn protest against our 
present system of written examinations. Nine tenths of the fault 
found with our schools may be traced to the bad habits, mental 
and moral, engendered by a system which has become an almost 
universal substitute for intelligent teaching. It is not too much 
to say that in our large cities, in particular, there is a strong ten- 
dency to make our teachers mere machines and their pupils unre- 
liable poll-parrots. One result of the system has been an utter 
abandonment of thorough intellectual training; and the moral 
results are tenfold worse than the mental. The temptation to 
deceive the teacher, to communicate, to impart information, or 
receive help, is irresistible. Does not this thing call for a remedy? 
Is it not time for a radical revolution ? Is it right that our chil- 
dren should be stupefied, dwarfed mentally, and debased morally ? 
These queries demand a reply. There must be some better way 
of testing a student's progress. Whatever it is, anything is better 
than this ; nothing can be worse." 
I 



PART VIII. 
PR 0FES8I0NA L ED UCA TION. 



CHAPTER I. — Professional Education of Teachers. 

II. — Normal Schools — Management and "Work. 
III. — Management and Work oe Formal Institutes. 
IV. — Township Institutes. 
. Y. — The Coming Teacher. 



PART EIGHTH. 
PR 0FE8SI0NA L ED UCA TIOK 



CHAPTER I. 

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION OE TEACHERS. 

All intelligent persons teach, but educators are pro- 
fessional teachers. In the list of professions, that of 
teaching is justly placed among the first. 

I. Teaching compared with other Professions. 
— The physician needs to understand the body ; the teach- 
er must understand both mind and body. The lawyer 
needs to understand government and law ; the teacher 
must be able to govern, and have a fair knowledge of law 
in addition to his knowledge of body and mind. The 
minister needs to understand man's moral nature and its 
development ; the teacher must understand man's entire 
nature, and know how to develop it. Teaching is the 
most difficult as well as the most responsible of all the 
professions. 

" Teaching is developing, exercising, stimulating, inciting and 
exciting, fostering — blowing a spark until it develops a flame. 
Teaching develops strength of mind, as exercise develops muscle ; 



380 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

teaching is kind, gentle, not puffed up with self-importance, but 
full of that charity which suffereth long. Nay, teaching is an 
exemplification of that charity so highly commended as greater 
than all, and above all. The grandest avocation of the human 
race is that of teaching; and the grandest, best man on earth is 
he who comes nearest to this ideal type of a perfect manhood, as 
exemplified in the Great Teacher." 

II. Professional Education a Necessity. — No 
one is permitted to practice medicine or law without a 
professional education. The blacksmith is not permitted 
to tinker a fine watch. To select green boys and girls to 
tinker immortal minds is the extreme of folly. "In 
another generation, for a youth to undertake the manage- 
ment of a school without previous training, will be con- 
sidered a greater burlesque than for a schoolboy to offer 
to plead in the Supreme Court, or to take charge of an 
ocean steamer." For our educators, preeminently, we 
need men and women of culture, mature judgment, ex- 
perience, and most careful special preparation. 

III. The Teacher must understand Child-Mind. 
— This statement is axiomatic. 

1. Mind is that upon which the Teacher operates. His 
work is to interest, direct, mold, and develop mind. How 
can he do these things without a knowledge of its na- 
ture, its capacities, and its laws of activity ? In all other 
occupations, he who does not understand the nature of 
the material upon which he works is considered a fraud. 
The farmer must know the nature of soil and its adapta- 
tions. The smith must be familiar with the peculiarities 
of the metals he fashions. How much more is it necessary 
that the teacher be familiar with the nature of the mind ! 

"Did teachers, as a class, have clear views of mental organiza- 
tion, they would tolerate no rigid Procrustean methods in their 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION OF TEACHERS. 381 

school-rooms. They would not set a like task for each one of a 
large class of boys or girls, and expect each to prepare and recite it 
with nearly equal precision. They would discern the difference of 
adaptation for special studies among their pupils, and be enabled 
to administer rebuke or encouragement with telling discrimina- 
tion. They would, in fine, be able to educate, to lead out and 
train, what there is of faculty and talent in a boy, for the practi- 
cal uses of his future. This view attaches high responsibility to 
the teacher's office, but it is far from unreasonable." 

2. Mind is that which is to be Developed. Education 
is development. Teaching is awakening the power to 
perceive, and feel, and think, and act. To accomplish 
this, an intimate acquaintance with mind is essential. 

3. The Powers of the Mind have their Natural Order 
of Development. Not to understand this order is to grope 
in the dark, and misdirect the energies of childhood. 
Ignorance here is the source of incalculable educational 
waste. 

4. Knowledge is Mental Food. In order to properly 
impart instruction, the teacher must understand the na- 
ture of the mind. Educational principles and methods 
of teaching are based upon the laws of mind. The nature 
of attention and the art of securing it ; the nature of 
perception, memory, imagination, and thought, and how 
to cultivate these powers; these are things the teacher 
must understand, in order that he may adapt matter and 
method to the wants of his pupils. 

IV. The Teacher needs to be familiar with 
the Science of Education. — Education is the science 
of human development. Its principles are based on a 
knowledge of human beings and their environments. The 
thought and experience of the race culminate in this, the 
grandest of all scieDces. All true art is based upon sci- 



382 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

ence. The art of teaching is no exception. Little but 
blunders and failures can be expected from teachers igno- 
rant of educational principles, and without skill in their 
application. 

V. The Teacher should be an Aetist. — Patient 
and Persistent Effoi't conditions Skill. The physician 
and the lawyer, the architect and the merchant, spend 
long years of toil before reaching important positions. 
Surely no less should be required of teachers ; thorough 
education, the best professional instruction, practice teach- 
ing, and months spent with skillful teachers, are reason- 
able requirements. None but artists, qualified to inspire 
and rightly direct child-effort, should be intrusted with 
child-culture. 

VI. Skill in School Management. — This is an im- 
portant qualification of the teacher. Knowing how is the 
secret of managing power. To produce and sustain order, 
to secure well-directed effort, and to train to the habits 
of self-government and self-effort, require talent and 
skill of the very highest order. To commit this work to 
immature, inexperienced, uncultured boys and girls is 
monstrous. The management of many of our schools is 
such as to make angels weep. 

VII. "Why do we employ Incompetent Teachers ? 
— Inexperienced boys and girls can not educate ; they 
don't know how. Yet half of all our schools are in the 
hands of the uneducated and the inexperienced. Why do 
people waste their money, and waste the precious years of 
childhood, by employing persons to teach who can not 
educate ? who merely ask questions and nothing more ? 
One who has every means of knowing answers : 

" The schools are had enough ; they have the machinery, and it 
is all running, but they grind no grist. Well, I went into a class 



NORMAL SCHOOLS— MANAGEMENT AND WORK. 383 

and sat awhile, and could not help hut feel sad at the hopeless 
case. Here was a young woman of seventeen or eighteen years 
of age, with no mental development, set to develop fifty young 
children. She did not and she could not." 

" But how do you account for the fact that the people allow 
these things ? " 

"I can not account for that, except that they do not know 
there could he any better work done." 

" What I object to," said " The Doctor " (who is at the educa- 
tional mast-head), "is that these people do nothing besides hear 
the lessons of the day ; consequently, the boy is no higher as a 
man, or the girl as a woman, at the end of the day. They do 
know more about Kamtchatka, it is true, but that will not save 
them." 

VIII. The Demand for Educated Teachers is 
steadily increasing. — The difference between a quali- 
fied teacher and a mere school-keeper is becoming widely 
understood. Intelligent communities, at any reasonable 
cost, seek to secure and retain efficient educators. Local 
retrenchment and venal favoritism by stupid school-boards 
should discourage no one. The general tendency is in the 
right direction. Efficient teachers steadily move to the 
front. How to secure such teachers for all our schools 
is the great question of our time and of all times. 



CHAPTER II. 

NORMAL SCHOOLS — MANAGEMENT AND WORK.* 

A normal school, as the term is used in the United 
States and other countries, is a school established for the 
training of teachers. Its aims are specific and profes- 

* The article of Professor Edward Brooks, in a recent number of the 
"Pennsylvania School Journal," was made the basis of this chapter. 
Because of the many changes, quotation-marks are omitted. 



384 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

sional, and in these it differs from the seminary and col- 
lege. The specific object of the normal school is to give 
culture and learning, not for the benefit of the student, 
but that it may be used in the education of the masses. 
Such a conception of the object and functions of a nor- 
mal school is fundamental, and determines the nature of 
its organization, its course of study, and its methods of 
teaching. 

A Normal School is Sui Generis. — The efficient 
teacher must have — (1) a knowledge of the branches to 
be taught ; (2) a knowledge of the mind ; (3) a knowl- 
edge of the methods of so inducing efforts as to develop 
all the powers of the soul ; and (4) a knowledge of the 
art of school management. Hence a school for the full 
qualification of teachers embraces two distinct courses of 
study : one in which the nature of man and of knowledge 
are made the object of study ; the other in which the laws 
and methods of developing the powers of man, and im- 
parting knowledge to other minds, are considered. These 
two courses are properly distinguished as the Scholastic 
Course and the Professional Course; and the normal 
school is the only institution in which these courses are 
necessarily combined. 

I. The Scholastic Course. — The teacher must pos- 
sess knowledge in order to impart it to others ; he can 
not teach what he does not know. He also needs to have 
his own powers cultivated, for the power it gives him to 
think, to originate and modify methods, and to influence 
and control his pupils. In other words, the ideal teacher 
should be a person with well-cultured powers and a liberal 
education. It is thus apparent that thorough scholastic 
training lies at the foundation of a teacher's education. 
The normal school must therefore require of its pupils a 



NORMAL SCHOOLS— MANAGEMENT AND WORK. 385 

thorough training in the branches of a scholastic course 
of study. The following reasons for this position are 
thought to be conclusive : 

1. A Present Necessity. It was formerly held that the normal 
school should not attempt to give this scholastic training, but 
should restrict itself to the work of the professional course ; that 
any attempt to impart instruction in the branches of knowledge 
was a departure from the legitimate function of a normal school, 
and an infringement upon the domain of other institutions. This 
opinion was held, not merely by those who were not in sym- 
pathy with normal-school work, but also by some of the leading 
normal-school men in the country. It has been found, however, 
in the practical working of these schools, that the young people 
who presented themselves for professional instruction were not 
properly prepared in the branches ; and the normal schools were 
thus compelled to do scholastic work whether they desired to do 
so or not. Whatever, therefore, be the true theory of normal- 
school instruction, experience has proved the present necessity of 
such a scholastic course; and the normal schools of the country 
to-day, almost if not entirely without exception, have provided 
for the scholastic training of their pupils. 

2. A Permanent Necessity. Such a course is deemed not only 
a present practical necessity, but an essential part of the true 
theory of normal-school education. The instruction required by 
teachers in the branches is, in many respects, different from that 
which is obtained at our academies and colleges, and perhaps dif- 
ferent from that which a correct theory of these institutions would 
indicate as best suited to the interests of their pupils. 

3. The Scholastic Instruction must he more thorough in Nor- 
mal Schools than in other Institutions. A teacher should not be 
merely a student of, but a master in, the branches which he is 
called upon to teach. Teachers should not have merely a general 
knowledge of a subject, but they should know it completely in its 
details. 

Such a requirement renders the instruction of a normal school 
necessarily thorough. No superficial work should be allowed. 
17 



380 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

All playing on the surface of things must be prevented ; every 
branch should be studied through and through. It is not suffi- 
cient that the subject be touched with the mental fingers; there 
must be a firm and complete mental grasp. A standard of scholar- 
ship like this must be required, even if fewer branches can be 
studied. It is better that teachers be masters of a few branches 
than that they should be smatterers in many branches. The 
motto of normal-school education should be, that it is hotter to 
know much of a few things, than to know a little of many things. 

It is a question whether such thoroughness is desirable in 
that general course of study designed to prepare a person for 
the ordinary duties of life. , It certainly is not attempted in other 
institutions ; and it would not pay them to drill over and over 
in arithmetic, and grammar, and geography, in order to give that 
thoroughness necessary to the teacher of these branches. 

4. The Methods of Work are necessarily Different. First: 
the branches in the normal school should be studied in their rela- 
tion to the mind of the pupil. There should be continued effort 
to call the attention of the student to the relation of the several 
branches of knowledge to the faculties concerned in their acquisi- 
tion and evolution. The object for which he is acquiring knowl- 
edge is to instruct and cultivate the minds of his pupils ; and to 
do this intelligently, he must know the relation between the mind 
and the material used in giving it culture and instruction. 

Second : the scholastic instruction in the normal school should 
be intensely analytic. In attaining discipline and knowledge, the 
ordinary student cares not so much about the road he travels as 
the end he reaches; but in acquiring knowledge to impart to 
others, we should know the steps leading to the acquisition, the 
relation of one fact and truth to another and to the mind, and the 
order of presenting subjects to the learner. 

Third : the scholastic instruction in the normal school should 
also be synthetic. The teacher must not only open the way by 
analysis, but he must be able to lead the pupil through this route 
by the steps of synthesis. 

Fourth : the scholastic instruction of the normal school should 
be philosophical. To the teacher, a knowledge of the principles 



NORMAL SCHOOLS— MANAGEMENT AND WORK. S87 

upon which a science is founded is of especial importance. In 
other avocations and professions, it may often he sufficient to 
know the forms and rules of language, or to be practically familiar 
with its use ; hut the teacher must understand the principles of 
language as well. Special care must therefore he taken to train 
pupil-teachers to perceive the logical threads which hind a science 
together, and to heget in them a habit of philosophic thought ; it 
should be required that all their discussions, explanations, authors, 
etc., shall be thoroughly systematic and logical. 

5. The Instruction must be eminently Practical. Knowledge is 
of use to us partly as it can be applied to practical purposes ; facil- 
ity of application is an object of education as well as clearness 
of apprehension. The teacher must train his pupils, therefore, to 
do as well as know, and he should be skilled in this practical part 
of education also. The normal school must, therefore, see that 
its pupils are well skilled in practice. This point can not be 
made too prominent in normal instruction, for there is a natural 
tendency on the part of those who have been thoroughly trained 
in the principles of the sciences to make their instruction too the- 
oretical. Carried away with the beauty of the principles of a 
study, they naturally neglect to give that training in methods 
which gives practical skill in their application. The normal 
school must, therefore, be careful to supplement the theoretical 
side of instruction with the practical side in the preparation of 
the teachers for our public schools. 

Conclusion Beached.— So far as these methods can 
be introduced into other institutions, so far they can pre- 
parepupils to enter the normal school, and to pass imme- 
diately into the professional course. At present, they do 
not thus prepare their pupils ; and it is a question wheth- 
er it would not be a disadvantage to them to attempt to 
give this preparation. Colleges can not afford it, for 
they must give their time to the ancient languages and 
the higher branches of science. The common schools do 
not do it, and, in the nature of things, can not do it. We 



388 PKOFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

have no system of academies established for such work. 
The office of the private school, in giving general culture 
or fitting for college, is so entirely distinctive that it could 
not meet this demand if it desired to do so. In view of 
these and other considerations, we conclude that a scho- 
lastic course in our normal schools is a present and a 
permanent necessity, an essential element of the normal- 
school work. 

II. The Professional Course. — The scholastic 
course must be supplemented by a professional course ; 
and at every step these courses must be interwoven. The 
professional course is regarded as the characteristic fea- 
ture of the normal school. It is the central idea of the 
institution, that from which it derives its inspiration. To 
this course everything else is made contributory. Learn- 
ing to know elsewhere, the pupil enters this course to 
learn to teach. Knowledge acquired elsewhere is brought 
here and examined, not alone from the standpoint of the 
student, but also from that of the teacher. The question 
is no longer, How shall I acquire ? but, How shall I im- 
part f Students enter this course to learn the laws and 
methods of culture, the relations of the different branches 
of study to the mind, and the methods by which knowl- 
edge should be imparted and the mental faculties devel- 
oped. It is the keystone of the arch, which gives power, 
and strength, and completeness to the entire work. The 
professional course of the normal school includes three 
distinct departments : elementary psychology and the sci- 
ence of human culture ; the art of teaching ; and the art 
of school management. 

1. The Science of Human Culture is the systematic 
presentation of the principles, processes, means, and meth- 
ods of human development. In the normal school, the 



NORMAL SCHOOLS— MANAGEMENT AND WORK. 389 

body and soul are studied as one organism. Embodied 
spirit is considered in its relation to the body, and the 
body in its relation to the soul. Each faculty of the soul 
is studied as to its nature and laws of action, and as to the 
time, means, and methods of its development. Psychol- 
ogy is necessarily the basis of the science of human cul- 
ture. In the elementary course, only the plain rudiments 
are studied ; but, in the advanced course, the investiga- 
tion is thorough and critical. A professional education 
without this department is like the play of "Hamlet" 
without Hamlet. " Onesidedness has been the vice of all 
systems of education." The earnest study of man as a 
complete unit, whose powers are to be developed simulta- 
neously and harmoniously, will give us a true system of 
education, as well as true educators. 

2. The Art of Teaching. A knowledge of the plan 
of the subjects taught, as well as the plan of child-mind, 
conditions intelligent teaching. In the professional 
course, the branches are critically examined from the 
standpoint of the teacher. Methods of instruction are 
made to conform to the principles developed in the science 
of education. The teacher learns to adapt each subject 
and each lesson to the capacity and wants of his pupils. 
To him, teaching becomes the art of adjustment. All 
past experience and all thought are laid under contribu- 
tion. The history of education, the results of individual 
and national experiment, and the methods of great edu- 
cators, are profoundly studied and practically utilized. 

3. Art of School Management. School instrumental- 
ities, school organization, school government, and school 
work are discussed under this head. Success depends 
largely on a mastery of these subjects. The philosophi- 
cal and practical study of school management is a desid- 



390 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

eratum to the professional teacher. The time given to 
this subject in normal schools is by no means too great. 
III. Theee Classes of Teacheks. 

1. The Self-made Teacher. All good teachers are 
self-made, but those who work up, unaided by the ex- 
perience of others, are such in a peculiar sense. One 
teacher out of a hundred, with great natural aptitude, 
ingenuity, and energy, may succeed by his own unaided 
efforts. The ninety and nine will remain plodders. The 
teacher who can not avail himself of the advantages of 
the achievements of the ages deserves our profound sym- 
pathy ; he who will not deserves our contempt. 

2. The Self-helpful Teacher. By the help of edu- 
cational journals ; by attending institutes, and counsel- 
ing with their fellow teachers ; by visiting other schools ; 
by heeding the criticisms of friend and foe ; by study- 
ing educational works ; by keeping out of all ruts ; and 
by hard work and constant self-criticism, many may be- 
come excellent teachers. In fact, many of our best teach- 
ers belong to this class. Ten years of determined effort 
on this plan, under favorable circumstances, ought to 
make accomplished teachers. Unfortunately, but one 
teacher in a hundred is endowed with the gift of final 
perseverance ; the ninety and nine drift. 

3. The Trained Teacher. Under the guidance of skill- 
ful instructors, education is studied as a science, and 
teaching is practiced as an art. With the light of all 
ages and all lands, with skill acquired under the direc- 
tion of master workmen, with the confidence and enthu- 
siasm inspired by earnest study, and with a familiarity 
with the best educational methods, the trained teacher 
begins at the point reached by the self-helpful teacher 
after long years of experiment. From the first the 



NORMAL SCHOOLS— MANAGEMENT AND WORK. 391 

trained teacher is efficient and successful. Nor does lie 
acquire skill at the expense of others, to the irrepara- 
ble injury of scores of young immortals. The trained 
teacher is always self-made and self-helpful. The normal 
school incites him to effort, furnishes him with the ne- 
cessary instrumentalities, and directs his labors. 

IV. Normal Schools must be State Schools. 
Law, medicine, and techincs pay ; hence, law, medical, 

and technical schools may safely be left to private enter- 
prise. War, preaching, and teaching do not pay ; hence, 
to secure military officers, preachers, and teachers, mili- 
tary, theological, and normal schools must be sustained 
at the public expense. Unless endowed, no collegiate 
institution, nor theological seminary, nor normal school 
can now be made efficient. The General Government sus- 
tains our military schools. States, individuals, associations, 
and the churches endow colleges and theological sem- 
inaries. The normal school is established for the benefit 
of the whole people, and is essential to the success of the 
public schools. In fact, the normal school is an essential 
part of the public-school system, and its support by the 
State is simply a necessity. It is an outgrowth of popu- 
lar education, and not only is it the best possible agency 
to meet the growing demand for qualified teachers, but it 
is the only agency that can be depended upon. 

V. Chair of Didactics. — The establishment in the 
great institutions of America and Europe of a chair for 
the professional education of teachers, marks a new de- 
parture in education. Colleges and universities are con- 
servative and exclusive. The professors are absorbed in 
their subjects, to the exclusion of methods. Thus it re- 
sults that, as to methods, our public schools are far in 
advance of our colleges. In this case the reform must 



392 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

come from within. The maintenance of a chair of didactics 
is destined to revolutionize college methods. Such stu- 
dents as elect teaching will go out trained for their work, 
and prepared to fill the best positions. While normal de- 
partments haye necessarily and always proved failures, the 
plan now pursued in the universities of Michigan, Iowa, 
Missouri, and other States promises to be eminently suc- 
cessful. Teaching is made to rank with theology, law, 
and medicine. College graduates should no more under- 
take to teach without special preparation, than to practice 
law or medicine without special preparation. Teaching 
is an art to be learned. Teaching is a profession to be 
acquired and practiced. The recognition of these facts 
by our higher institutions marks an immense advance. 

So-called Normal Schools. — Many poor second- or 
third-rate academies, dubbed normal schools, are doing 
what they can to bring all normal schools into contempt. 
They are conducted by persons destitute of the letter 
and the spirit of normal work. The academic work is 
superficial, and the attempt to do professional work is a 
ludicrous sham. The managers of such schools need to be 
baptized into the spirit of the new education; and the 
schools must be so revolutionized as to make the pro- 
fessional education of teachers the warp and woof of their 
work. Fossils and dead-beats must give place to live 
teachers ; men and women who grasp the situation, and 
are able, by example, by precept, and by training, to lead 
the teacher-pupils up to a higher educational life, must 
direct the normal-school work. 



MANAGEMENT AND WORK OF NORMAL INSTITUTES. 393 

CHAPTER III. 

MANAGEMENT AND WORK OF NORMAL INSTITUTES. 

A Normal Institute is a Short-Term Normal 
School. — The normal school is the great agency for pre- 
paring skillful teachers, but the large body of our teachers 
do not enter normal schools. The county normal institute 
embraces in its organization all the teachers of the count)^. 
The work is necessarily abbreviated and concentrated, 
but the normal institute brings normal methods and pro- 
fessional enthusiasm home to all our teachers. 

An Educational Eevolution is Imperative. — 
An army 400,000 strong is now charged with the educa- 
tion of our 16,000,000 youths. More than one half of this 
army are mere school-keepers, without any special pre- 
paration for teaching. That more than one half of our 
school-children are in the hands of the utterly incompe- 
tent, is an astounding fact. Some far-reaching and all- 
pervading agency which will effectually reach the entire 
body of teachers is demanded. We must have organiza- 
tion, and well-defined plans of work, and executive pow- 
er. In the eternal fitness of things, the normal institute 
comes to the front as the required agency. The schools 
and colleges give culture. Normal schools train many 
teachers, but the normal institute absolutely reaches all, 
and thus supplements all other agencies for the elevation 
of teachers and teaching. 

A Prominent Educational Factor. — The old 
county institute served its purpose, and its days are num- 
bered. The normal institute, though still in its infancy, 
is assuming mammoth proportions, and is destined to be- 
come a permanent part of our educational system. Its 



394 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

present crude and systemless condition simply marks a 
transition. But the time has come when the normal 
institute must be made a model of system and efficiency, 
including as it does our entire body of teachers, affecting 
as it does untold millions. No means for its perfection 
should be spared. We need normal institutes — (1) to 
train our 200,000 untrained teachers ; (2) to keep trained 
teachers bright ; (3) to foster a professional spirit ; (4) 
to deepen and widen and direct the interest felt in popu- 
lar education. 

The Work of the Normal Institute. — The work 
of the normal institute may be stated in a few words : 
(1) to improve schools by teaching the teachers what 
to study and how to study it — what to teach and how to 
teach it ; (2) to train teachers to systematize their knowl- 
edge, and present subjects in the most attractive and effec- 
tive form ; (3) to lead teachers to adapt instruction to 
the capacities and wants of the pupils ; (4) to instruct 
and train teachers in the art of school management ; (5) 
to lead teachers to profoundly study child-nature and the 
science and art of human culture. 

Organization of Normal Institutes. — The ques- 
tion of paramount importance is, How may we so organize 
and manage the work as to make normal institutes in the 
highest degree efficient ? The best thought and widest 
experience are needed for the solution of this problem. 
Educators tend to unanimity on the following points : 

1. Each State must maJce Normal Institutes a Part of its Pub- 
lic-School System. Several States now require a normal institute 
of from two to four weeks to be held annually in each county, 
under the general directions of the State superintendent. With- 
in a decade, every State in the Union will, it is predicted, have a 
system of normal institutes. 



MANAGEMENT AND WORK OF NORMAL INSTITUTES. 395 

2. The Teachers of a County should be divided into Groups or 
Classes according to Attainments and Success. For all purposes, 
four classes are found to give the best results. The school law of 
the State should authorize such classification. 

3. A well-digested Course of Study is Essential to Success. 
Three years of hard work should entitle the successful teacher to 
admission to the ranks of professional teachers. 

4. Matter and Methods should receive about equal Attention. 
The subjects selected should be such as will meet the immediate 
wants of the teachers and their pupils. "While much information 
may be acquired, the chief good comes from learning how to study 
and how to teach. 

Only a few subjects should be selected. " Every practical 
teacher knows how important it is to lay well the foundations of 
learning; to constantly carry back the learner to fundamental 
truths ; to link new acquisitions to the old." One subject mas- 
tered is better than a smattering of many. No attempt should 
be made to go over an entire branch. Certain topics are mas- 
tered. The teachers learn how to study as well as how to teach. 

5. The Management should be as perfect as in the Best Schools. 
As far as possible, institutes should teach by example the art of 
school management. 

Course of Study and Programme for Normal 
Institutes. — After years of study, observation, experi- 
ment, and consultation, the following scheme is submit- 
ted : 

I. Classificaton. — The teachers are grouped into four classes : 

1. Class D. In this class we place those who have not taught, and 
those who hold third-grade certificates. 

2. Class C. Such as hold, or are entitled to hold, second-grade cer- 
tificates we place in Class C. It is understood that a careful examina- 
tion on the work required of Class D conditions admission to Class C. 
Graduates of high schools, and undergraduates of colleges and normal 
schools, though not having taught, may be admitted to Class C upon ex- 
amination. 

3. Class B. Teachers holding first-class certificates, and graduates 



396 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 



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39$ PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

of normal schools and colleges, will compose this class. Before admission 
to this class, however, the teacher must pass a critical examination upon 
the work required of Classes C and D, and must have had at least one year 
of successful practice in teaching. 

4. Class A — Professional Teachers. Those having at least two years 
of successful experience as teachers, after a rigid examination on the 
work required of Classes B, C, and D, will be admitted to the ranks of 
professional teachers. The danger of admitting unworthy persons to this 
class must be determinedly guarded against. This class will do profes- 
sional and advanced work in the institute, and will constitute the corps 
of assistant instructors. Such as are needed for special work will be 
paid. 

II. Work during the Institute. — The course of study is arranged 
for a four weeks' institute. In case the time is two weeks or six weeks, 
the number of lessons given in each subject can be proportioned accord- 
ingly. Classes D, C, and B ought to spend four weeks ; two weeks may 
be sufficient for Class A, and even one week will do great good. 

III. Work during the Year. — The course of study provides hard 
work for each class during the year following the institute. The Meth- 
odist Church, by requiring definite and hard study of young preachers 
for a period of four years, has doubled the efficiency of her ministry. A 
similar course will immeasurably elevate the teacher's profession. It will 
compel a forward movement all along the line. Every teacher will neces- 
sarily become an earnest student. Subjects will be thoroughly examined, 
both from the standpoint of the pupil and that of the teacher. This plan 
will increase tenfold the value of the institute. Our teachers will grow, 
will become strong and cultured men and women — fit models and capable 
leaders. Teaching, in all its departments, will become a profession. 

IY. Examining Committees — Committees of professional teachers, 
appointed by the county superintendent, will examine all candidates for 
admission or promotion. After examination, the applicants are admitted 
to the classes which they are entitled to enter ; at the beginning of the 
second annual institute, the classes are examined on the work assigned for 
the preceding year, and such as arc found worthy are promoted. Teach- 
ers who fail to advance during two successive years should be excluded 
from the institute, and should not be granted license to teach. Thus, all 
teachers may be compelled to move up or move out. The county superin- 
tendent, in all cases, must approve or disapprove the reports of committees. 

Y. Certificates and Diploma. — All persons admitted to Class D re- 



MANAGEMENT AND WORK OF NORMAL INSTITUTES. 399 

ceive the D Institute Certificate ; tho:-;e admitted or promoted to Clas3 C 
receive the Institute Certificate; those admitted to Class B receive 
the B Institute Certificate ; and those promoted to Class A receive the 
Institute Diploma with the degree Professional Teacher. 

VI. Class A. — By three years of hard work and hard study, the faith- 
ful teacher becomes entitled to enter the highest class ; but he never 
• to be an institute worker. Professional teachers, like ministers 
and physicians, meet from year to year for professional work. As this 
class embraces the professional teachers both of the public and private 
schools, and as it invites to its sessions school officers, ministers, lawyers, 
physicians, etc., it becomes the focus of educational life and the radiating 
center for educational reforms. Members appointed report on live educa- 
tional topics ; these reports are discussed. Important educational ques- 
tions are discussed and plans of work agreed upon. Each year courses 
of lessons will be given in advanced subjects, and during the year these 
subjects will be studied. Arrangements will be made for a course of five 
or more lectures in each school-house ; tickets for the course to be sold, 
say for fifty cents, and the proceeds devoted to increasing the library and 
apparatus. By a system of exchanges, the professional teachers may thus 
infuse into every community interest and culture. The resulting benefits 
are incalculable. Organized effort is invincible. 

Instruction in Normal Institutes. — 1. Subjects 
and Methods should receive about Equal Attention. The 
teacher must know the what as well as the how. He will 
not be able to learn much in four weeks, but he may 
learn how to master subjects for himself, and how to 
criticise and correct his own methods. The institute 
furnishes the key, and the teacher wins success by inde- 
pendent effort. 

2. Theory embodied in Practice is Best. What we 
do, rather than what we say, produces a lasting impression 
on other.?. If we could have methods in teaching illus- 
trated by actual teaching, if we could have excellent 
teachers in the institutes who would teach a few subject-; 
in a model and normal manner, it would do incalculable 
good. What you teach, brother institutor, teach thor- 



400 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

oughly ; do not attempt to cover much ground, but let 
your matter and methods be such as to make those whom 
you instruct strong and self-helpful. 

3. Educational Psychology must be made the Basis of 
Institute Work. Only profound ignorance of the philos- 
ophy of education can account for the management of 
many normal institutes. Teachers work on the surface 
and become mere copyists. Ungrounded in principles, 
they have not within themselves the means of growth. 
Ceasing to advance, in two or three years they become the 
stunted monuments of arrested growth and educational 
folly. Where institutes are wisely planned, a few easy 
lessons in elementary psychology and methods of culture 
are given to the D class. A few chapters in a suitable 
book are assigned for study during the first year. Other 
lessons are given to classes C and B, and other chap- 
ters are assigned for study during the second and third 
years. What are the results? (1.) An intense interest 
in the study of mind ; (2. ) A mastery of educational 
principles ; (3.) A boundless enthusiasm in the art of 
human development ; (4.) Independence and originality ; 
(5.) Accelerated and unlimited growth. 

4. Outlines of Institute Worlc. All attempts to out- 
line detailed institute work are absurd enough. If in- 
structors are so ignorant as to need these outlines, they 
will scarcely be able to use them to advantage ; and to ef- 
ficient instructors such outlines are as useless as they are 
intolerable. It is infinitely better to use the regular text- 
books, and assign subjects and pages. Good teaching is 
worth more than whole encyclopsedias of outlines. 

■ 5. School of Observation. A model school, embracing 
classes in the first and second readers, is of great value. 
Here the management of children and primary teaching 



MANAGEMENT AND WORK OF NORMAL INSTITUTES. 401 

in their best forms are exhibited. This is strictly a school 
of observation. The members of the institute will be ex- 
cused from their classes to spend two or three hours each 
week in the model school. 

6. Practice- Teaching. As in the normal school, prac- 
tice-teaching must be confined chiefly to the regular class 
work. Each class is divided into groups of about five 
each ; each group constitutes a class, the members in turn 
acting as teachers of the class. Matter and method are 
criticised. Though extremely limited, such practice 
proves highly beneficial. 

7. Lecturing versus Teaching. The normal institute 
is eminently a school, and not a debating society or a lec- 
ture club. The pouring-in or cramming process is the 
worst possible for the institute ; it is so utterly unlike the 
actual work of the school-room. One or two vigorous 
conversational lectures each day are every way desirable. 
One able evening lecture each week is indispensable. But 
teaching, real teaching, is the staple in well-conducted 
normal institutes. 

WOEK OF THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT. — It is the 

duty of the superintendent — 

1. To work up the institute, securing a full attendance. 

2. To manage the finances. 

3. To supervise boarding arrangements. 

4. To appoint examining committees and direct the 
examinations. 

5. In council with the professional teachers, to secure 
a conductor. 

6. In council with the conductor, to secure assistant 
instructors. 

7. To teach two or three classes daily. 



402 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

8. In every way to aid the conductor, but seldom to act 
as conductor. 

Qualifications and Duties of Institute Con- 
ductoks. — Normal institutes by the score are murdered 
annually by well-meaning but unsuitable conductors. 
Some lecture their institutes to death ; some bring on a 
fatal dullness ; some lack the judgment or the nerve to 
secure efficient assistants ; others kill by miserable man- 
agement. 

1. The Conductor should he a Master Workman. The demand 
is for men of action, men of ability ; men who are successful teach- 
ers, who know how to organize, how to teach, and how to man- 
age schools to the best advantage ; men of experience in actual 
work in country schools, who know their wants and how to sup- 
ply them. 

2. The Conductor must possess great Organizing and Directing 
Poicer. He must be systematic in all that he does and in what 
little he says. He needs the organizing power of a great general 
— to organize the first half-day, and be ready for work in the after- 
noon — classes having been formed and lessons assigned, signals 
and movements practiced and explained until all understand them. 
The superintendent will see that all the teachers are present the 
first morning. Vigorous and permanent school organization and 
management must be taught practically. 

3. The Institute Conductor will have Exclusive Control of the 
Instruction. In council with the superintendent and the assist- 
ants, he arranges the programme and directs the work. Usually, 
the conductor will have charge of the professional work, and will 
be assisted by the county superintendent. 

4. The Conductor should usually be a Non-resident of the 
County. New ideas and new vigor may thus be infused into the 
county, year by year. Besides, jealousies and the charge of favor- 
itism may be avoided. Like teachers and county and city super- 
intendents, institute conductors should be selected with refer- 
ence to qualifications, regardless of county or State lines. If ever 



MANAGEMENT AND WORK OF NORMAL INSTITUTES. 403 

normal institutes come to grief, it will doubtless be on account of 
inefficient conductors. 

The Normal Institute and the ISToemal School. (Supt. J. M. 
Greenwood.) — " The normal institute can never take the place 
of the normal school, any more than militia drill can take the 
place of "West Point. 

" Years are required to master the branches and understand edu- 
cational methods. A deep philosopy underlies the whole system 
of education. It is manifest that all this can not be acquired in 
four weeks. Normal schools are usually supplied with first-class 
instructors, master workmen. Normal institutes are too frequent 
ly conducted by instructors minus all necessary qualifications 
Normal-school work is thorough work, well finished and rounded 
normal-institute work is hasty work, spread over much territory 
more suggestive than reflective, and necessarily very imperfect 
So, although we count normal institutes an invaluable educational 
means, to think of allowing them to take the place of our normal 
schools would be as ridiculous as to allow a single course of lec- 
tures to take the place of the regular university work." 

Adapted to all States. — The scheme for normal in- 
stitutes here sketched is believed to be suited to all the 
States. While the plan must be modified to meet local 
conditions and wants, the essential features, it is thought, 
will remain the same. After the publication of this scheme 
in the "American Journal of Education," I was gratified 
to find it widely endorsed by educators. Principal J. W. 
Shoup gives the following itemized suggestions as to the 
application of the plan to the Iowa institutes : 

" Let there be prepared a graded coui*se of instruction, run- 
ning through three years, on the basis of a four weeks' session. 
Each institute could then be divided into four classes : those doing 
the first year's work, those doing the second year's work, those do- 
ing the third year's work, and those doing advanced work. Let those 
who have taken the first year's work be carefully examined on it 



404 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

at the opening of the second institute, by a board of examiners 
consisting of the county superintendent, the conductor of the in- 
stitute, and a third person appointed by the State superintendent. 
In case the applicant obtains an average of eighty per cent, or more, 
let him receive a certificate to that effect, which certificate should 
admit him to the second year's work in any county in the State. 
Let him be examined on the second year's work as on the first ; 
at the opening of the third institute, and in case his examination 
is satisfactory, let him again receive a certificate admitting him 
to the third year's work in any county in the State. This third 
year's work should complete the common-school studies, includ- 
ing a thorough course in didactics ; and when applicants have 
completed it, and sustained a satisfactory examination as in the 
former years, let them be granted professional certificates, which 
shall be honored in all parts of the State ; the county superintend- 
ents merely endorsing them when teachers move from one county 
to another. These certificates should be permanent, as are the 
diplomas of doctors and lawyers. 

" This plan would, I think, have many advantages over the plan, 
or rather the lack of plan, now in vogue. We would not need a 
new course of study each year as now, but a good course once 
adopted would last for any desired length of time. It would bring 
about uniformity in our work, and would at once establish a uni- 
form standard of grade among our teachers in the different coun- 
ties of the State. It would be a strong inducement for teachers 
to complete the course, since by so doing they would receive a 
proper recognition. They would attend more regularly than now, 
knowing that they must sustain an examination at the beginning 
of the next session on the work of the grade. It would soon 
make teaching a profession, as it would establish a class of pro- 
fessional teachers. It would mark out definite work for the con- 
ductors, and, instead of scattering as they now do, they would 
have a definite object in view and work for it." 

Most of the States are steadily and earnestly striving 
to perfect their systems of normal institutes. Almost 
everywhere encouraging progress is being made. 



MANAGEMENT OF TOWNSHIP INSTITUTES. 405 

CHAPTER IV. 

MANAGEMENT OE TOWNSHIP INSTITUTES. 

Teachers are earnest men and women. They seek 
to educate the people as well as the children. The town- 
ship institute is an excellent means both for professional 
and popular culture. The potency of system alone is 
needed to make the township institute an immense edu- 
cational force, directly affecting the teachers and the 
people. 

I. General Plan. — The institutes may be held 
monthly in the district school-houses of the township. 
On Friday evening, a live lecture or a stirring discussion 
will interest the people and the teachers, and do great 
good. Saturday will be devoted to professional work. A 
literary entertainment on Saturday evening is every way 
desirable. The specific plans can be arranged during the 
normal institute. 

II. The Conductor. — The professional teachers and 
the county superintendent, during the normal institute, 
elect an institute conductor for each township. The same 
conductor will usually serve during the school-year. To 
change conductors monthly, though sometimes advisable, 
renders the institute much less efficient. The county 
superintendent will fill all vacancies. The conductor 
appoints the assistant instructors, essayists, and debaters, 
arranges the times and places of meeting, and presides 
at all sessions of the institute. While the work must be 
done chiefly by the teachers of the township, one or more 
good teachers from other sections will add to the interest. 
Whenever possible, the county superintendent will of 
course be present and take a prominent part. 



406 



PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 









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MANAGEMENT OF TOWNSHIP INSTITUTES. 4-07 

III. The Peogramme. — During the normal insti- 
tute, the superintendent and the professional teachers of 
the county arrange a programme for the winter campaign. 
The work will be about the same in each township. The 
number of meetings will vary in different counties ; in 
most counties, six meetings are advisable. The accompa- 
nying programme gave excellent results in actual use. 
Though strictly elementary, it is suggestive. The con- 
ductor and superintendent may make such changes as 
seem necessary, in order to adapt the general programme 
to the wants of the several townships. 

IV. Entertainment. — The teacher of the district 
where the institute is held will play host or hostess ; the 
several teachers who attend will be his guests. The people 
of the district will gladly entertain the visitors, but the 
teacher must make the arrangements some days before 
the meeting. These meetings may be made real soul- 
feasts, both to the teachers and to the citizens of the 
district. 

V. County Superintendent. — Whenever possible, 
the county superintendent should attend these meetings. 
They enable him to accomplish double the good he other- 
wise could. He reaches at once the teachers and the 
people. An efficient superintendent will not rest till he 
secures a good working institute, in each township of his 
county. 

VI. Pioneer Work. — In counties where normal in- 
stitutes are not held, or where the superintendent lacks 
organizing power or shirks work, the teachers of each 
township must take the matter in hand. Any one may 
call a meeting, at which the campaign may be planned. 
Teachers can not afford to neglect this work. Let no live 
teacher wait for others to move. 



408 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

Ghaded-School Institutes. — The teachers of graded schools 
hold semi-monthly institutes. Except in cities, they should also 
attend the township and normal institutes. 

City teachers seldom voluntarily attend institutes or educa- 
tional associations, and rarely read educational journals or study 
educational works. At present, the city schools are far in ad- 
vance; hut a quarter of a century of systematic effort will assur- 
edly place the rural districts in the lead. Very soon teachers who 
do not work in normal and township institutes, and who ignore 
educational literature, will certainly be permitted to enjoy the 
sweets of private life. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE COMING TEACHER.* 

I. His Position. — The old schoolmaster belongs to 
the past. The modern teacher marks the transition from 
the old to the new. The coming teacher will fill an hon- 
ored position among the illustrious of the earth. With 
noble mien, he will stand in the arena of thought and 
action, the peer of the statesman, the clergyman, and the 
philosopher. 

II. What he will be. — The coming teacher will 
be a superior man or woman, physically, mentally, and 
morally. 

1. He will he a Splendid Type of Physical Manhood. 
His erect form, buoyant step, graceful movements, musi- 
cal voice, powerful and well-poised nervous system, exu- 
berant spirits, and enduring strength will fit him to 

* To a report of Hon. Newton Bateman, State Superintendent of Illi- 
nois, I am indebted for much in this chapter. I read the report several 
years ago, when first published, but have not seen it since. 



THE COMING TEACHER. 409 

direct, to manage, to instruct, and to inspire. Teaching 
is thought to be easy work ; hence the tendency to fill our 
ranks with weaklings and invalids. Fatal mistake ! No 
other profession requires such robust health, such bound- 
ing spirits, such nerves of steel. The nations are begin- 
ning to learn this lesson. The coming teacher will take 
his place with the soldier and the athlete as a splendid 
type of physical manhood. 

2. The Coming Teacher will possess Mental Power 
and Vigor. He will be the peer of the editor, the states- 
man, the minister, the lawyer, and the physician. He 
will lead his pupils up to a grander, higher life. In all 
the movements of society, he will be a prominent actor. 
He will profoundly study men and affairs as well as books. 
He will ponder well the great problems of humanity, and 
he will so educate his pupils as to render them of the 
greatest possible value to society and to themselves. 
Teaching requires talent of the highest order. Too long 
have theology, medicine, law, and commerce absorbed 
our best men ; too long has the error prevailed that any 
one can teach children . Society should demand her most 
gifted men and women for the school-room. 

3. Thorough Scholarship and Broad Culture will 
characterize the Coming Teacher. To good natural abili- 
ties he will add learning, culture, and discipline. He 
will know vastly more than text-books, and will be able 
to lead his pupils into broader and richer fields of thought. 
He will know how to introduce practical knowledge of 
almost every kind into the subjects of study. To call 
him a teacher whose scholarship is rudimentary, shallow, 
and nebulous, whose knowledge is elementary, crude, 
and scanty, and whose notions are narrow, bigoted, and 
erroneous, is the worst of misnomers. The time is at 

18 



410 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

hand when ignorant pretenders must be excluded from 
our noble profession. The coming teacher will possess 
breadth of learning and breadth of culture. He will be 
master of the subjects taught, independent of the text- 
books, and capable of the most searching analysis and the 
clearest synthesis. 

4. The Coming Teacher will be a Person with Sound 
Principles, Pure and Nolle Impulses, and a Stainless 
Character. They who mold our youth, and whose mis- 
sion it is to inspire love for everything that is pure and 
right, must themselves be pure and true. All the vicious, 
all canting hypocrites, all whose impulses are low and 
selfish, must be excluded from the brotherhood of teachers. 
Here we must have genuine men and women, such as 
have hearts full of love for God and man, such as will, by 
every word and act, help their pupils to become strong to 
resist the wrong and do the right. The coming teacher, 
with these sterling traits, will do more to elevate our race 
than all other reformers combined . 

5. The Coming Teacher will he an Educational Artist. 
He will be a profound student of child-nature, as well as 
of the educational thought and experience of the race. 
The great educational principles, "Mind and body are 
interdependent "; " The soul is self-acting "; "Educational 
growth results from well-directed effort "; " The self -activ- 
ity of child-mind, stimulated and directed by the teacher, 
results in development "; " To take an intelligent step, the 
teacher must understand the plan of child-mind, as well 
as the plan of the subject taught," etc., will enter into 
the warp and woof of his mental economy. As an artist, 
he will be guided by these principles. He will teach 
things, principles, thoughts — not mere words and book- 
formulse. He will train the pupil to be observant and 



THE COMING TEACHER. 41 1 

self-reliant, and to use judgment as well as perception 
and memory. Under his plastic hand, the entire nature 
of the child — physical, mental, and moral — will bud, and 
blossom, and bear fruit. The grandest, noblest manhood 
will be the product. Our race will enter upon the sub- 
lime phases of human possibilities, foretold by poets and 
philanthropists. Then will be realized universal educa- 
tion and universal brotherhood. 

III. HOW TO SECURE EDUCATIONAL ARTISTS. — Phil- 
ip thanked the gods that Alexander was born when he 
could have Aristotle for a teacher. Every child has as 
much right to skilled instruction as the son of a king. 
The world's great want is educational artists. The world's 
great work is to provide efficient teachers for the masses. 

1. The Teacher's Position must be made more Desirable. 
None but the worthy must be permitted to enter this 
profession, and society must be educated to hold in high 
esteem the self-sacrificing and hard-working school-teach- 
er. The people must learn to honor, and trust, and co- 
operate with these brave men and women. 

2. The Teacher's Position must be made more Secure. 
No other vocation is now so precarious. For all sorts of 
reasons, or for none, the teacher is "turned off." The 
common-school teacher is literally a wanderer. Is it sur- 
prising that competent teachers seek other fields of labor ? 
When all this shall be changed, and when the people shall 
learn to spare no effort to secure and to keep the best 
teachers, our most gifted youth will gladly fit themselves 
for educators. 

3. Teaching must be made more Remunerative. Ex- 
cepting California, no State or country adequately remu- 
nerates the common-school teacher. Short terms and 
low wages are fatal to efficiency. Ten dollars less per 



412 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

month decides the average school-board to employ an 
inferior teacher. So long as we pursue the ruinous policy 
of exacting a dollar's worth of work for fifty cents, just 
so long will we fail to secure efficient teachers. Talent 
commands its price. Adequate compensation is absolutely 
essential in order to secure the most worthy men and wo- 
men for our teachers. 

Henry "Ward Beecher, in speaking of teachers and salaries, 
says : " There is no profession so exacting, none that breaks men 
down so early, as that of faithful teaching; and there is no econ- 
omy so penurious, and no policy so intolerably mean, as that by 
which the custodians of public affairs screw down to the starva- 
tion-point the small wages of men and women who are willing to 
devote their time and strength to teaching the young." 

4. Positions must be made dependent on Merit. Fa- 
voritism and nepotism are the bane of the profession. 
They literally drive the most worthy out of the profes- 
sion. The selection of a teacher upon merit is the excep- 
tion. The modest and worthy teacher gives place to the 
dolt who happens to have an influential uncle or a rich 
brother-in-law, or who belongs to a popular church or to 
the dominant political party. This crime against the 
race demands a speedy and radical remedy. The indig- 
nation of outraged humanity should be visited upon the 
guilty perpetrators of these frauds. School-boards must 
be held to strict account. Necessary safeguards must be 
provided. He who votes for a teacher from favoritism 
must be branded as a public enemy ; and unscrupulous 
place-hunters must be expelled from the brotherhood. 

5. The Best Means for educating Teachers must be 
•provided. The coming teacher will usually be a grad- 
uate of a normal school ; hence these institutions must be 



THE COMING TEACHER. 413 

made every way worthy. Normal institutes must be 
maintained to stimulate continued growth. Our educa- 
tional literature needs to be vastly improved and extended. 
The coming teacher will not only be familiar with the 
educational achievements of the past, but also with the 
current educational thought and movements. 

IV. The Coming Teacher will be a Man among 
Men. — He will boldly lead his pupils and the people up 
to a higher life. He will dare to teach vital truths, and 
will not shrink from pushing them to their results. 

1. The Coming Teacher will not le a mere Place-filler. 
" So long as the teachers as a body will not advance from 
the low place of being in-pourers of facts, so long will the 
salaries be low, and their position among men wanting in 
dignity. The clergy, years ago, had a far more command- 
ing pulpit than now ; ministers expressed themselves 
freely upon all subjects ; yielding to popular clamor 
was a fatal mistake. Teachers have yielded to pressure 
from without and timidity from within, and have set up 
a low ideal of what their office really is. The teachers 
of the present are largely place-fillers merely; and the 
people have become satisfied with the machine men and 
women — the fact-tellers. The teacher is appointed by 
politicians ; he holds his place by the consent of politi- 
cians. These facts may be unpleasant to state, but the 
real condition of things is well known to all who ob- 
serve." (Kellogg.) 

2. The Coming Teacher will work a Revolution. 
" What should be done to remedy this state of affairs ? 
Is there a remedy ? We believe most sincerely that there 
is a remedy, and that it lies with the teachers. Some 
may expect we shall counsel the teachers to unite and 
form 'protective associations,' etc. Nonsense! If edu- 



414 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 

cation is the good thing that it is said to be, why not 
employ that ? Educate your pupils and the people con- 
cerning education. Emerge from the chrysalis state of 
employing yourselves in pouring out a dose of facts each 
day, and begin to teach. Let your influence be felt out- 
side of the school-room. Begin to hold educational meet- 
ings. If three persons believe in education, they will want 
to get together and tallc about it ; if they believe in it, they 
can get others to believe in it, and not till then." 

V. The Mission of the Coming Teacher. — Our 
best school systems are now comparatively inefficient be- 
cause of the incompetency of teachers, and our best sys- 
tems are full of defects. 

1. T/ie Coming Teacher will perfect our School Sys- 
tems, so as to secure the highest results at the least ex- 
pense. Only teachers are qualified to perfect our educa- 
tional plans. The outlines of the coming system are now 
well defined, and our educators, with singular unanimity, 
support the proposed measures. 

2. TJie Coming Teacher will revolutionize our School 
Methods. After all that has been done, the majority of 
our schools are wretchedly taught. But the coming teach- 
er, even now, is at work in favored localities, and is doing 
bravely and well the work of revolutionizing the school 
methods. It may take generations, but ultimately the 
coming teacher will find his way into every district. 

3. The Coming Teacher will Teach. " What is teach- 
ing ? " In the technical sense it is not easily defined. If 
a man imparts knowledge, he teaches. If he gives intel- 
ligence, he teaches. If he tells a truth not before known, 
he teaches. If a man guides and directs in the pursuit 
of knowledge, he teaches. If he counsels, if he admon- 
ishes, he teaches. In all these senses, the privilege is not 



THE COMING TEACHER. 415 

very great ; the field is not very inviting. Some man, 
confined to narrow limits and stinted observation dur- 
ing the long years of his heavy life, is suddenly favored 
with a change. The sunlight of intelligence falls upon 
his vision. A world before unknown is open to his 
view. The towering Alps, with their peaks of eternal ice 
and snow, fill his mind with conceptions too wonderful 
to remain locked up in one small brain. It is a privilege 
for him, in his turn, to call his neighbors and friends 
around him and depict this union of the earth and sky, 
to tell the wonders of the gems that hang sparkling from 
their summits. It is a privilege for him to teach. " The 
child that walks for the first time through the menagerie, 
comes home with the canvas of his memory densely cov- 
ered with lions, and tigers, and elephants, and monkeys, 
and ostriches, and animals of all kinds, and birds of a 
great variety of feathers, on which his own imagination 
gazes as the picture of the world when the ' lion and the 
lamb shall lie down together'; and he calls his fellows 
around him, who are soon persuaded that he is the * little 
child' who ' shall lead them.' This kind of teaching is 
a privilege to Mm. But these are examples of teaching 
only in the general sense. 

"To witness young thoughts springing up, new facul- 
ties developing the tendrils of the mental vine reaching out 
to fasten themselves on surrounding thought, the gather- 
ing up of mental strength, the accumulation of mental 
wealth, and to be instrumental in such a work — this is a 
privilege. To inspire and direct, and be the guiding 
architect in building up a noble character, and fitting it 
for immortality and the happiness of the blessed, is & privi- 
lege pregnant with eternal delight." (" New York Jour- 
nal of Education.") 



PART IX. 
SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 



CHAPTER I. — Vital Educational Principles. 

II. — Perfection of School Systems. 
III. — Conditions of Educational Progress. 
IV. — School Supervision. 

V. — Waste Labor in Education. 
VI. — Educational Reforms. 



PART IX. 
SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 



CHAPTER I. 



VITAL EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND THEIR APPLI- 
CATION". 

I. Truth Reached by one People should be Ac- 
cepted by All. — Truth is cosmic. " Seize upon truth 
where'er it may be found " is the key to progress. The 
press, steam, and electricity have made the nations one 
family ; the achievements of an individual or a nation 
at once become the property of the race. Thus it oc- 
curs that institutions are born in a day, and the world's 
progress is startling. This principle is now the accepted 
policy in science, art, and practical life ; its thorough 
introduction into the educational work is a prime factor 
in human elevation. 

Illustrations. A quarter of a century ago, Minnesota was the 
home of wild men and wild beasts; now Minnesota is a great 
State, with a school system equal to the best. The school system 
of Japan, though scarce a decade has passed since it was founded, 
compares favorably with the school systems of Europe and 
America. 



420 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

II. Education is an Investment, not an Expense. 
— Money judiciously expended for educational purposes 
pays the largest dividends. A truly educated people are 
always a prosperous and happy people. Education pays. 

Only the ignorant and vicious grumble about judicious school 
taxes. Only stupid people want cheap teachers and cheap edu- 
cational instrumentalities. 

III. Educators should Direct the Educational 
Work. — Experts direct in every department of practical 
life. Engineers plan our railroads, architects construct our 
buildings, physicians direct the healing art, lawyers man- 
age legal matters. The knowledge and skill acquired by 
long years of devotion to a special work count. The folly 
of employing preachers to construct railroads, and lawyers 
to prescribe for disease, is only exceeded by that of leav- 
ing everybody or anybody to direct educational work. 

The educational work demands the best talent and tbc widest 
experience. That experts should plan and direct every step here, 
is infinitely more important than that we should have skilled en- 
gineers and physicians. Never will the best educational results 
be reached until this principle predominates. 

IV. Schools and Teachers should be Eemoved 
from Local and Partisan Meddling. — Our public 
schools occupy common ground. Here Jew and Gentile, 
Christian and Infidel, Catholic and Protestant may 
unite. The development of man physically, intellectu- 
ally, and morally belongs to our common humanity. 
Partisan or denominational interference with our public 
schools is unpardonable. 

This principle is beginning to be recognized. Onr schools are 
more and more removed from the interference of partisan elec- 



PERFECTION OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 421 

tions and local disturbances, but the time has not yet come when 
we dare even indicate the results of the complete application of 
this principle. 

V. Oue School Systems must be so Planned and 
Adjusted as to Produce Unity and Harmony. — Sys- 
tem secures economy, harmony, and efficiency. Our edu- 
cational institutions, public and private, are but parts of 
one great whole. We have as yet but fragments and ag- 
gregations, not systems. Adjustment is needed every- 
where. 

The work of public and private schools must be 
agreed upon. All elements of discord must be elimi- 
nated. 

The five principles here enumerated are far-reaching and all- 
pervading. When our school work shall be ordered in accordance 
with them, we may expect our children to be rightly educated, 
our school funds wisely and honestly expended, and our systems 
to be the best in the world. 



CHAPTER II. 

PERFECTION OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 

The application of these principles in a single direction 
must suffice. Details here would be out of place. To 
the people of a State, two courses of work are possible: 
they may follow either the tinkering or the commission 
plan. 

The Tinkering Plan ignores the results worked out 
by other States and nations. Every one deems himself 
competent to tinker the school system of his State. 



422 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

Legislators " cut and try " ; amend and repeal ; advance 
here and retrograde there. They try everything im- 
practical and absurd. Tinkering has given most States 
a "thing of shreds and patches," instead of an efficient 
school system. 

The Commission Plan reverses all this. Experts di- 
rect all successful movements in practical life ; the com- 
mission plan simply applies this principle to the educa- 
tional work. Weary with tinkering, our people demand 
school systems embodying all the perfections reached by 
the thought and experience of mankind. By selecting 
our most experienced educators as a commission to plan 
and direct this work, the desired results may be reached. 

I. State Board of Education. — The commission 
chosen to perfect and direct the school system of a State 
will constitute the State board of education. It would 
be well to have in this board leading educators, chosen 
from each Congressional district. The number should 
not be less than twenty. The State superintendent should 
be ex officio president of the board, and should nominate 
the members of the board, subject to the approval of the 
State senate. A State board, thus constituted, would be 
a perpetual educational commission, and its mission would 
be the perfection and direction of the school system of the 
State. 

II. Duties op the State Board. 

1. To suggest Improvements. Familiar with the educa- 
tional work of all ages, as well as with the current move- 
ments in all States and countries, the board would be 
able to present wise laws, and to present them in the best 
shape. Crude and costly experiments would be avoided. 
In time, a school system of approximate perfections would 
be developed. 



PERFECTION OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 423 

2. To construct and adjust Courses of Study. This 
is professional work of the highest importance, and should 
always be left to the most competent educators. 

3. To appoint and remove County Superintendents. 
The board, composed of responsible and competent edu- 
cators, might be relied upon to give each county a thor- 
oughly efficient superintendent. 

4. To select Text-Books. We must have persons of 
unquestioned integrity and ability to select our text- 
books. No tribunal could be formed more competent than 
a State board of prominent educators ; left to such men, 
the selection of superior books would be a matter of 
course. 

III. Plan of the Future. — The adoption of the 
commission plan in some form is merely a question of 
time. Ultimately, educators will direct the educational 
work. Happy those States and countries that have the 
wisdom to commit the educational work to competent 
educators ! * 

IV. The Commission Plan favored by Educa- 
tors. — Intelligent friends of popular education realize 
the failure of our so-called school systems to produce re- 
sults commensurate with the expenditures. Many dis- 
cern the cause of failure and the remedy. Educators of 
the State of New York recently addressed the Legislature 
as follows : 

"Business principles must be brought to bear on education. 
There are thirty thousand teachers employed ; there are eleven 
millions of dollars expended ; hence economy demands that the 

* " The Best System of Schools for a State," by Superintendent J. H. 
Smart, of Indiana, and " The American System of Education," by Dr. W. 
T. Harris, of St. Louis, should be studied by all who aspire to understand 
and improve our school systems. 



424 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

most efficient plan be adopted for the selection, employment, and 
payment of the teachers, so that the children will get the full 
value of this vast sum of money. After a conference with men 
from all sections, we make the following suggestions : 

"1. That you enact a law whereby the Senate, on the recom- 
mendation of the Governor, shall elect a ' State Board of Educa- 
tion,' consisting of at least twenty able educators, to serve six 
years without pay, their expenses only being paid. 

"2. This board to have the direction of the educational affairs 
of the State. 

" 3. This board to determine courses of study for the public 
schools of the State. 

" 4. This board to appoint the State superintendent with one 
or more assistants. 

" 5. This board to appoint and remove county commissioners. 
Term, six years. 

" 6. This board to direct the institute work, etc., etc. 

"Finally, we ask that you will not neglect your duty to the 
children. Is it too much to ask the Legislature of the State to 
adopt as one of its mottoes, ' Come, let us live for the children ! ' " 

The educators in nearly all the States speak with equal 
emphasis. "We plead for the children and the race. Our 
law-makers must hear ! 



CHAPTER III. 

CONDITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. 

Progress is the Spirit of Civilization. — The 
world's educational progress during the present century- 
is even more wonderful than its material advancement. 
At the beginning of the century, education was regarded 
as the privilege of the few ; now, the duty of providing 



CONDITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. 425 

for universal education is unquestioned. Then, no nation 
had a public school system ; now, every civilized state 
sustains free schools. Then, school buildings were hovels ; 
now, the school-room is a palace. Then, school furniture, 
school apparatus, and school-books were shockingly crude 
and scanty ; now, these instrumentalities are marvels of 
beauty and skill. Then, the old schoolmaster was the 
butt of ridicule ; now, the teacher begins to take rank as 
a leader among men. 

The Old and New Education. — In two or three 
decades, our new education will become the old. Our 
favorite systems, methods, and appliances will seem crude. 
Marvelous as has been the progress, especially during the 
last half century, still grander and vaster developments 
await well-directed effort. To-day the masses of our race 
are barbarians. In the most enlightened of nations the 
millions are but semi-barbarous. Our mission is the ele- 
vation of the race. Stupendous work ! Error is fleeting ; 
truth endures. In so far as we reach truth, we build for 
the future. Truth alone benefits man. He is the great- 
est benefactor who eradicates most error and establishes 
most truth. In view of boundless possibilities, we turn 
to the pressing interrogation, What are the conditions of 
continued and accelerated educational progress ? 

I. Better Physical Conditions is the First Con- 
dition of Educational Progress. — The soul is em- 
bodied. The organism through which the mind works 
needs to be healthy and vigorous. People need time for 
culture. Human life should not be a mere struggle for 
existence. Greater physical vigor and more leisure lie at 
the foundation of human elevation. We venture some 
suggestions. 

1. To malce our Bodies fit Instruments of the Soul is 



426 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

a Sacred Duty. Good parentage, careful rearing, and 
hygienic living are simply imperative. The duty of phys- 
ical health and vigor should be inculcated around every 
fireside, taught in every school-room, pressed by every 
journal, proclaimed from every platform, and thundered 
from every pulpit. 

2. Temperance is a sine qua non. Temperance is self- 
control, the subjection of the animal to the man. Tem- 
perance tends to health and leisure. Intemperance is the 
curse of our race, and must be removed. We specify : 

(1.) The Liquor Traffic with its Train of Evils must 
he Prohibited, The cost is fearful. In our country and 
Great Britain, the direct and indirect cost of alcoholic 
drinks exceeds the cost of food and clothing. Worse, the 
liquor traffic brutalizes, destroys physical vigor, burns out 
manhood, and leaves the body a fit dwelling-place for fiends. 

(2.) The Tobacco Traffic with its Benumbing and De- 
grading Effects must be Abolished. We need not argue. 
The startling facts stare us in the face. The liquor traffic 
and the tobacco traffic must go. Abolish these, and you 
change seas of human woe to mountains of human joy. 
You double the physical vigor of the race. You save time 
and money enough to feed, clothe, and give a college edu- 
cation to every child in the land. Alcohol and tobacco 
must go ! 

(3.) The Body must be made the Servant of the Mind. 
To pamper the body and starve the soul is the most idiotic 
of crimes. The body serves for a day and is shuffled off ; 
the mind goes on for ever. To live for luxury and lust is 
to subject the man to the brute, and to exchange an eter- 
nity of happiness for a fitful dream. Obedience to the 
physical and moral laws of our being gives vigorous bod- 
ies — fit servants for immortal souls. 



CONDITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. 427 

Right living is inexpensive, and gives at once health and time 
for culture. This is no Utopian dream, but simple common sense. 
To make educational progress and the elevation of the race possi- 
ble, we must begin at the foundation, and better the physical con- 
ditions of the masses. 

II. A Higher Educational Ideal is the Sec- 
ond Condition of Educational Progress. — Human 
achievement never surpasses its ideal. A low ideal bars 
grand results. Lofty ideals inspire and lead to greatness. 

1. The Educational Ideal of the Masses is Utilitarian 
and Material. "Will it pay ? Will it enhance material 
prosperity ? This low ideal hangs like an incubus over 
all educational work, rendering progress impossible ex- 
cept as the ideal is elevated. 

2. The Ideal of the Masses as to Higher Education is 
Erroneous. "Education unfits for ordinary life ; educa- 
tion renders the people discontented ; education makes 
people ashamed to work ; education causes college boys 
and girls to become lazy." Such notions, though com- 
mon, are false and misleading. 

3. To produce a Nobler Manhood is the True Educa- 
tional Ideal. Let the masses once realize that education 
is the development and training which renders a man of 
most value to himself and the race, and fits him for the 
highest happiness of which he is capable — let a noble 
manhood become the popular educational ideal, and a stu- 
pendous change will take place in our educational work. 

III. Wise Agitation is the Third Condition of 
Educational Progress. — Agitation is cosmic ; agitation 
keeps pure the ocean and the air ; agitation is the process 
of purifying and elevating society. To effect results, the 
agitation must be well directed and persistent. Educa- 
tors may learn many a lesson from politicians. Every 



428 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

State should have a well-digested platform, looking to 
steady educational advancement. The planks will he 
changed to meet the demands of the State and the times. 

IV. Ideal Educational Platform. 

First Flank. Resolved, That only persons who have 
demonstrated by experience their fitness to teach shall he 
employed as teachers. 

This plank is sound, and will endure for all time. Ability to 
teach can only be tested by teaching. The aspirant may for a few 
months assist a skillful teacher in a graded or ungraded school. 
The compensation will be practice and criticism. The practice 
may be secured in normal and training schools. A school is for 
the benefit of the pupils. It is certain that no one can teach who 
has not practically learned the art. This plan justly excludes un- 
tried persons from the brotherhood of teachers, thus protecting 
childhood from bungling experimenters. 

Second Plank. Resolved, That the position of % the 
efficient teacher shall be made reasonably permanent. 

The policy of changing teachers quarterly or yearly, or of 
having a female teacher in the summer and a male teacher in the 
winter, is simply ruinous. Good teachers are driven out of the 
profession, and half the money expended is wasted. The loss to 
the pupil can not be estimated. "While teaching continues to be 
the most precarious of all occupations, educational progress will 
continue to be seriously retarded. 

Third Plank. Resolved, That efficient teachers shall 
receive fair salaries. 

The mass of our teachers are meanly paid. High-sounding 
speeches about education, and the meager salaries paid teachers, 
are shameful contrasts. The salaries of teachers should assuredly 
compare favorably with the remuneration of other occupations re- 
quiring equal skill and labor. This is fair. Then we will be able 



CONDITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. 429 

to retain in the profession talent and efficiency. Putting positions 
up to the lowest bidder, making salaries the same regardless of 
qualifications, and reducing salaries below the cost of intelligent 
living, are blots upon our civilization. 

Fourth Planh. Resolved, That county superinten- 
dents must be successful teachers, and must possess a 
State certificate, or its equivalent. 

The superintendent plans and directs, and hence must be a 
leader. As such he must be a master workman and familiar with 
the details of the work ; hence must be chosen from the ranks of 
professional teachers. A judge must be a man learned in the 
law ; how much more should the superintendent be a skilled 
educator! To appoint or elect superintendents from merely par- 
tisan or personal considerations is monstrous. Fitness must deter- 
mine the choice. ' 

Fifth Planh. Resolved, That school officers and teach- 
ers, from State superintendent down, must be chosen on 
account of fitness. 

We must have ability and fitness in all departments of the- 
school work. Place-hunting, favoritism, partisan influences, and 
denominational preferences must be rebuked. "The case is a 
rare exception," says a leading educator, " where teachers and 
school officers are not chosen by political influences, or by denom- 
inational preferences, or by personal feeling. If they are good 
men and women, it is accidental. A rascally state of things for 
the nineteenth century." 

Sixth Planh. Resolved, That teachers and friends 
of education must organize, and must vote, regardless of 
party affiliations, for men and measures favorable to edu- 
cational progress. 

V. Conclusions.— Ideas must become acts. Our 
educational associations are rich in ideas, but the conver- 



430 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

sion of ideas into acts seems to be a lost art. These as- 
sociations often remind us of the "ten thousand men 
that marched up the hill and then marched down again. " 
Momentous interests call educators together to consult 
and determine ; they should go forth to achieve. A work- 
ing platform would augment the value of educational as- 
sociations a thousand fold. A political educational party, 
or a political temperance party, is an inexcusable blunder. 
What we want is that the friends of human elevation act 
as one man, and work for results. In public and pri- 
vate, in the caucus, at the polls, and in the legislature, 
the united and concentrated efforts of the friends of edu- 
cation will tell for human good. Organized and well- 
directed effort succeeds. A bold and determined policy 
may frighten weaklings, but it will command the respect 
and support of men and women. 



CHAPTER IV. 

EDUCATIONAL SUPERVISION. 

The marvelous progress in education is largely' due to 
organized supervision. Everywhere the educational ad- 
vancement of a state or a nation is in the ratio of the 
efficiency of its supervision. "Without supervision the 
tendency of all work is to drift to the lowest level. The 
poorest work that can draw its money drags down the 
rest to its level irresistibly, when there is no higher au- 
thority to measure results and pronounce upon them. 
With competent supervision all work tends to struggle up 



EDUCATIONAL SUPERVISION. 431 

to the highest level of attainment. The best work is con- 
tinually held up before the workmen. The best methods, 
the best results, are made the standard." The rapidity 
with which States sustaining thorough supervision come 
to the front is the unanswerable logic of events. 

Links oe Supervision. — Our American system of 
schools embraces the following : 

I. National. — In the report of the national Commis- 
sioner of Education, as in a mirror, one may see reflected 
the actual status of education — its organization and re- 
sults — not only in the United States, but in all parts of 
the world. 

II. State. — The State superintendent of public in- 
struction has charge of the apportionment of the State 
school fund, the organization of educational institutes, 
the collection of statistics, and a general supervision over 
the common schools, so far as the execution of the State 
laws is concerned. 

III. County. — The county superintendent or commis- 
sioner has the supervision of the schools of the coun- 
ty, and works under direction of the State superinten- 
dent. 

IV. Township. — The principal of the recognized 
township central high school is ex officio superintendent of 
all the schools in the municipal township, and works un- 
der direction of the county superintendent. 

V. City. — Superintendents of the city schools have 
jurisdiction over systems of schools organized indepen- 
dently of county supervision, under the immediate direc- 
tion of the State superintendent. 

With this five-fold system of supervision perfected, 
the course of American education will be right on- 
ward. 



432 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

COUNTY SUPERVISION. 

System, energy, and thorough supervision are the es- 
sential elements of success. They are nowhere so in- 
dispensable as in the school work. Supervision is even 
more necessary in the rural districts than in cities, as the 
teachers in general are less experienced and change more 
frequently. 

I. The County the Unit. — For the purposes of su- 
pervision, the county is wisely made the unit. (1.) The 
school work is thus made to harmonize with the other in- 
terests of the State. (2.) The work in most counties is 
sufficient to engage the entire time of a worthy educator. 
(3.) In populous counties, it is better to employ one or 
more assistants than to divide the counties. Subordinate 
township supervision is the right solution. The county 
plan gives vastly better results than district or indepen- 
dent township supervision. (4.) The school work of the 
county is unitized. Experience as well as theory points 
to county supervision as permanent because best. 

II. The Name. — County superintendent, county ex- 
aminer, and county commissioner are all used. The work 
is substantially the same, whether performed by a super- 
intendent, a commissioner, or an examiner. Superinten- 
dent is the title used in twenty States, and should be uni- 
formly used. 

III. Status of County Superintendents. — The 
county superintendency should be an employment, not an 
office. It should be strictly professional, and similar to 
city superintendency. Making it an office involves great 
difficulties. Superintendents should be employed and 
dismissed on precisely the same basis that teachers are 
employed and dismissed. 



EDUCATIONAL SUPERVISION. 433 

The correctness of this position will hardly be ques- 
tioned. According to this plan, those best fitted for the 
work, regardless of sex, sect, party, county, or State, can 
be employed. The superintendent will then be untram- 
meled. I can see no other way in which county super- 
vision can be made fully satisfactory. 

IV. Employment akd Eemoval. — Here we find the 
cause of failure or the key to success. Five plans are be- 
ing tried. In fourteen States the people elect ; in three, 
county courts appoint ; in three, the State superintendent 
or governor appoints ; in three, the State boards of educa- 
tion elect and remove. 

1. Election by the People, as in the employment of teachers, is 
the worst possible plan. In no State does it give satisfaction. 
The menace of a popular election is fatal to the highest efficiency 
of the superintendency. 

2. Appointment by County Courts is decidedly objectionable. 
Karely do we find such tribunals competent or free from partisan 
or personal bias. 

3. Election by the School Officers of the Townships gives Mod- 
erate Results. The directors in Pennsylvania, and the trustees in 
Indiana, elect. Though not always the best, passably good selec- 
tions are generally made. In most States, the best available plan 
seems to be election by the presidents of the several school boards. 

4. Appointment and Removal by the State Superintendent, with 
the Consent of the Governor, has much to commend it. 

5. Employment and Removal by an Efficient State Board of 
Education is doubtless the best possible Plan. Such a board will 
be composed of leading educators, representing all parts of the 
State. The professional standing of the members of the board 
guarantees the selection of the most competent persons, and the 
summary removal of the inefficient. The board would not be 
restricted by county or State lines. As in the selection of teachers, 
qualifications, and not residence, should determine the choice. 
This plan impresses us with the force of an intuition. It could 

19 



434 SYSTEM AND PROGEESS IN EDUCATION. 

not fail to give each county a first-class superintendent. All the 
conditions of success — competency, efficiency, permanency, and 
independence — would be secured. 

V. Teem of Employment. — Four years is probably 
the most desirable term. A good superintendent should 
be retained at least two terms, and a poor one should be 
dismissed at once. The longer a good superintendent is 
retained, the better. As with teachers, frequent changes 
preclude success. In four States the term is four years ; 
in three, three years ; in twenty-one, two years ; and in 
two, one year. Short terms are objectionable for several 
reasons ; obviously because first-class educators will not 
accept the position for a short term, and because the time 
is too short to work out plans. 

VI. Salaeies of Supeeintendents. — The salary 
should be such as will command the entire time and 
energies of able educators. To direct the school work 
of a county requires as great ability as to govern a State 
or to command an army. The salaries paid must be suf- 
ficient to command such ability. A good superintendent 
is invaluable to the county ; an incompetent one may do 
much injury. Here, as elsewhere, judicious expenditure 
is the true economy. 

VII. Qualifications of County Supeeinten- 
dents. 

1. The Superintendent must be a TJiorough Scholar ; otherwise 
he is not competent to determine the scholarship of teachers, or to 
examine schools. 

2. The Superintendent must be an Efficient Teacher; other- 
wise he is incapable of criticising, instructing, and directing oth- 
ers. To appoint to this work an ignoramus, or to appoint a law- 
yer, a clergyman, or a doctor, is a serious blunder. A skilled 
teacher is needed to direct teachers. 



EDUCATIONAL SUPERVISION. 435 

3. The Superintendent must oe Practical ; and, besides this, lie 
must possess great organizing and managing power. 

4. The Superintendent must have Vigorous Health and Untir- 
ing Energy ; otherwise he is unfit for a work requiring constant 
travel and great physical and mental labor by nigbt as well as by 
day. 

5. The Superintendent must possess true Moral Worth; oth- 
erwise he will fail to give a high moral tone to the teachers and 
schools of the county. 

6. The Test of Competency must be a State Certificate or a 
Professional Diploma. No one should be eligible to this position 
who has not taught successfully for at least three years. The 
State superintendent or the State board should examine and com- 
mission superintendents. " The real superintendent needed is 
one who can so inspire the teachers that school shall be a living 
thing, and not a clanking and otherwise groaning machine." 

Duties of County Superintendents. — As the head 
of the school system in his county, the superintendent 
vitalizes and directs all. His duties are onerous, and upon 
their faithful discharge depends the educational progress 
of the county. 

I. Financial Duties. — The financial management 
of our schools is of paramount importance. The work 
must be so directed as to secure efficiency without burden- 
ing the people. Wise foresight and system, the utmost 
economy, care to avoid losses, and the judicious expen- 
diture of money, are some of the items demanding the 
attention of a vigilant superintendent. While in most 
States the finances are intrusted to others, the superin- 
tendent can largely direct the financial policy of his coun- 
ty, and thus advance the school interests. More and more, 
legislatures are disposed to commit the supervision and 
direction of the school finances of the county to the su- 
perintendent. 



436 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

II. Popular Duties. — The people must be educated, 
and interested in the school work. Through the press, 
by lectures, and through the normal and township insti- 
tutes, the superintendent may do a great work. The 
teachers, the ministry, and all other active friends of edu- 
cation are his coadjutors. He not only works hard him- 
self, but also organizes and directs all the educational 
forces. He makes popular education a reality. 

III. Official Duties. — The superintendent instructs 
school officers, decides disputed points, and sees that each 
officer discharges his duties. Here he meets difficulties 
that test him to the utmost. Unless blessed with good 
judgment and possessed of much practical knowledge, 
failure is inevitable. 

IV. Statistical Duties. — An industrious county su- 
perintendent is needed to procure and tabulate full and 
accurate statistics. Without such an agency, the statistics 
usually procured are so defective as to be almost worthless. 
Few seem to realize the immense importance of correct 
school statistics. 

V. Architectural Duties. — A sensible and influen- 
tial county superintendent is needed to aid in the selection 
of school grounds, the planning of buildings, and the 
selection of furniture and apparatus. Probably more than 
half of the school-houses are badly located, badly con- 
structed, badly furnished, badly heated and ventilated, 
and chronically in bad repair. Suitable outhouses are 
rare. Few schools have the necessary apparatus. These 
gigantic evils affect to an alarming extent the health and 
progress of the pupils. A capable superintendent can do 
much to remedy these evils. 

VI. Examination of Teachers. — There is a press- 
ing need of a thorough and impartial county superinten- 



EDUCATIONAL SUPERVISION. 437 

dent to examine teachers. The teacher's certificate, as 
generally given, is a sham— a mere guess. In two days an 
expert may determine the qualifications of twenty teach- 
ers. The oral and the written examinations should oc- 
cupy about equal time. By dividing the candidates into 
two sections, and by having one of his assistants manage 
the written examination, the superintendent may give all 
his time to the oral work. He can test the scholarship and 
power to explain ; he can have each applicant conduct 
recitations, and thus test his ability to teach ; he can have 
each one organize his school, and thus show his plan of 
classification and government. A certificate given after 
such an examination would mean, "Examined and found 
qualified." To protect a county against the curse of in- 
competent teachers is of the utmost importance. A thor- 
ough, conscientious county superintendent alone can be 
relied on to do this work. 

The superintendent should in all cases call to his assistance 
three professional teachers. No certificate should be issued with- 
out the approval of two of his assistants. This custom, now law 
in some States, ought to become law in all States. 

VII. School Examination Duties. — Superinten- 
dents should examine, not visit schools. Visiting schools 
is nearly always a sham. A grandmother with her knit- 
ting would do about as much good as the visits of the 
average county superintendent. Such useless and sense- 
less visits have done much to render the superintendency 
disreputable. A practical people have a right to expect 
results. A few suggestions from the chapter of experi- 
ence may prove acceptable. 

1. Time Spent. Not less than a full half-day should be spent 
in each school ; in some schools, a full day should be spent. An 



438 



SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 



energetic and systematic superintendent can manage two hundred 
schools by examining two daily. A county with two hundred and 
fifty or more schools should furnish an assistant superintendent or 
provide subordinate township supervision. 

2. Well-defined Object. The superintendent wishes to ascer- 
tain the exact condition of things, that he may help teachers, pu- 
pils, and parents. He thoroughly digests his plan and works to it. 
If possible, he secures the attendance of the school-board and some 
of the parents. 

3. Inspection of the Programme. Is the school well graded 
and well classified? Is each moment spent to the best advantage? 
What changes ought to be made ? 

4. Grading the Teachers. During the first hour let the teacher 
proceed with his usual work. Critically, but impartially, he is 
graded on the following points : 



VISITATION GRADES OF TEACOEES. 



Teachers. 


m 

'A 
H 

is 


M 
W 
ft 

K 

o 


2 
•a 

< 


a ^ 


a 


PS 


W 
Ci 
P 


g 

W ft. 

O ■ 


H 

H 
<! 
ft 


Eemaeks. 




















1880. 


( Inexperienced. 


J. A. Davis. . 


80 


to 


TO 


"t0 


tiO 


60 


06 


TO 


12-10 


•< Lacks life and 
( vigor. 


Helen Jones.. 


90 


00 


95 


90 


92 


100 


96 


96 


12-10 


) Good. Somo neg- 
1 lect of details. 


Mary Fowler. 


To 


50 


50 


SO 


50 


60 


50 


40 


13-10 


_) Failure. Muse be 
] removed. 


David Irclan. 


96 


100 


98 


96 


95 


95 


96 


9T 


13-10 


Excellent. 



These grades will be recorded in the superintendent's register, 
and will be open to examination by school officers. 

5. Examination of the School. The superintendent will now 
devote two hours to a thorough examination of the school. He 
will call and examine such classes as he may think best, and at 
once test the work done by the teacher and that done by the 
pupils. His course should be such as to encourage the pupils and 
strengthen the teacher. Display of self or disparagement of the 
teacher would be unpardonable. Good teaching, however, may 



EDUCATIONAL SUPERVISION. 439 

be illustrated by example, as tbe examination will consist chiefly 
of the regular lessons for tbe day. 

0. Instructing the Teacher. An hour spent in this way may 
prove invaluable. The teacher, isolated and overworked, needs in- 
struction, advice, and encouragement. Frankly call his attention 
to defects noticed, and suggest the means of correction. Be the 
teacher's friend. Such instruction must always be private ; after 
the close of school is usually the best time. 

7. Evening Meetings. Whenever propitious, meet the parents, 
the teachers, and the larger pupils of the two districts visited. 
Talk to them about their highest interest. Be practical. Avoid 
all pedantry and bombast. Endeavor to unite parents, teacher, 
and pupils in the greatest work of earth. Cooperation is the key 
to success. 

The good results of a day thus spent can not be es- 
timated in dollars. The labor is great, and the chief 
recompense, as in all teaching, is the consciousness of 
contributing something to human elevation. 

VIII. Duty of Revoking Cektificates. — We need a 
fearless county superintendent to remove unworthy teach- 
ers. The school-room is the real test. Success is to suc- 
ceed. The teacher who hopelessly fails to govern his 
school, or to secure progress, should be promptly retired 
to private life. His license was a mistake, and should be 
unhesitatingly revoked. This duty should be imperative. 
Visit the districts of any State. You will find at least one 
half of all the schools in the hands of the incompetent. 
The axe is a cruel remedy, but is there any other ? All 
efforts to render the teacher efficient have failed. To 
retain a hopelessly incompetent teacher, to the infinite 
injury of the pupils, is worse than cruelty — it is a 
crime. 

IX. Institute Duties. — It is the duty of the super- 
intendent to render both the normal and the township 



440 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

institutes highly successful. In no other way can he do 
so much to elevate the entire body of teachers. 

X. Duties as to Course of Study. — It is the work 
of the county superintendent to adjust the course of 
study to the several classes of schools, and to train teach- 
ers to use it properly. Thus he will secure the same sys- 
tematic work throughout the county that is now secured 
in our city schools. Each of his duties is important, but 
a mild superlative is certainly justifiable in connection 
with this duty of the superintendent. 

In the light of his duties, so imperfectly sketched, we remark: 

1. The superintendent eats no idle bread. A brave, strong 
educator is needed in this position. 

2. Experience shows that educational progress is ever in the 
direct ratio of the efficiency of the supervision. 

3. To leave the young and inexperienced teachers of a county 
without a directing head, to grope their way, is a reckless waste 
of money and time, to say nothing of the incalculable loss to the 
children. 

4. The right development of child-mind is of priceless value ; 
it is therefore needful that master workmen direct the efforts of 
inexperienced teachers. 

5. As financial agent, the superintendent will usually save to 
the school funds of the county more than his entire salary. 

6. An efficient county superintendent doubles the value of 
every dollar expended for school purposes. He systematizes the 
educational work, secures vastly better educational instrumentali- 
ties, and brings about earnest cooperation on the part of teachers 
and patrons. He trains all the teachers, directs wisely their la- 
bors, and stimulates each one to do his best. 



EDUCATIONAL WASTE. 441 

CHAPTER V. 

EDUCATIONAL WASTE.* 

"Well-directed effort is the great law of culture and 
the key to success. Educated labor strikes the blow in 
the right place and at the right time. Results are 
achieved with the least expenditure of force. Through 
ignorance, carelessness, and dishonesty a large portion of 
human effort is wasted. Could we stop the wastes, five 
hours of labor would give our race a vastly better support 
than ten hours now afford. Great as is the physical waste, 
the educational waste is greater. With sad hearts, educa- 
tors view this dark picture. But the skillful surgeon 
falters not from sympathy — a human life is at stake. The 
brave educator shrinks not to face this dark catalogue of 
errors — the well-being of millions of young immortals is 
involved. 

I. The Employment of Inefficient Teachers is 

THE GREAT EDUCATIONAL WASTE. 

1. It is a shameful Waste of Money. School-boards have no 
difficulty in getting teachers, or what they call teachers ; and 
they pay these persons a good deal more than they are worth. A 
girl who could by no manner of means earn more than five dollars 
per week at anything else, gets ten in one of our city schools. A 
young fellow who gets ten dollars per month on the farm, and 
gets his full value too, goes into a winter school and is paid thirty. 
This is educational extravagance. It is a positive waste of public 
money. Such work is not worth so much money. The teacher, 

* Some of the valuable suggestions of President H. W. Everest, Presi- 
dent P. A. Chadbourne, A. M. Kellogg, editor of the " New York School 
Journal," and others have been embodied in this chapter. So many 
changes have been made that it is thought best to omit quotation-marks. 



442 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

as he is called, does not teach ; he goes through the motions only. 
No trustee has a right to expend money consecrated to education 
in hiring persons who can not educate. 

2. It is a monstrous Waste of Child-Life. By putting an un- 
qualified, untrained, unskilled teacher into the school-room, the 
precious years of childhood are wasted like water; the swiftly 
fleeting moments are gone, like water spilt upon the ground. A 
child is sent to school from his sixth to his sixteenth year — for 
ten years, sometimes more. What has he to show for that? A 
large part of his time is not only wasted, but so employed in pot- 
tering with his faculties that much of what he learns is absolutely 
worthless, and much that he ought to learn is wholly untaught. 
Besides, what he does learn is so poorly fixed in his memory that 
he is not its master. 

The waste of time, the waste of the period of plasticity which 
will never return, the waste caused by giving no moral impres- 
sions, creating no impulses toward the highest and best in the 
child's nature, is something really prodigious! It can not be 
reckoned in dollars and cents. It can be measured partially by 
comparing the results with what has been accomplished by those 
who have sat bravely down to educate themselves. In surgery, 
it is a first law to stop the waste of the powers of life. It was 
once thought to be a good thing to bleed a man well. That su- 
perstition prevails yet as to the powers of the human soul. They 
are running rapidly to waste in our schools. "When shall these 
things cease ? When will it be beyond the power of any trustee 
to waste the money of the public, and use up the seed-time of the 
next generation? 

II. Violation of Economic Law is a fearful 
Educational Waste. — It is only when men become 
wise and thoughtful that they become frugal. Economy 
is the result of education and intelligence. In the appli- 
cation of economic law to the management of our edu- 
cational work, our race has much to learn. The following 
violations illustrate the vastness of the waste : 



EDUCATIONAL WASTE. 443 

1. The Waste of the Child's earlier Years. Not that children 
are kept too long from the public schools, but that their education 
in other respects is delayed. We can not begin too soon to 
cherish the love of truth, to cultivate the affections, to strengthen 
the will, to inculcate self-control, to inspire with courage and 
heroism in the right, and to familiarize with the objective phase 
of nature. The opportunities are past before most parents awaken 
to the necessity of such culture. 

2. Much Educational Effort is a Warfare against Nature. A 
child's intellectual stomach abhors and rejects grammar and all 
abstract subjects, while language lessons, objective and concrete 
work, are grateful. We do not insist on raising oranges in Maine, 
and why try to force nature into a compliance with false educa- 
tional theories? 

3. There is great Waste through a Want of Continuous 
Effort. Arithmetic is begun every winter. The close of the 
term leaves the boy floundering in fractions. The vacations are 
longer than the terms. There is more forgetting than remember- 
ing. Like the frogs in the well, though they jump up three feet 
every winter, they fall back two every summer — a slow getting 
out of a deep well. 

4. There is a Disregard of Economy in attempting the Im- 
possible. Why torture your daughter, yourself, and the piano, if 
she can not learn music ? It will waste your money, and help to 
fill the world with discordant noises. If your son has no talent 
for languages, do not hic-haec-hoc him to the verge of despair. If 
he can not understand the lower mathematics, do not make him 
run the gauntlet of the higher. Do not drag him through the 
integral calculus till he forgets the multiplication table. 

5. Giving more Attention to the Boole than the Boy. Ex- 
plain the lesson for the sake of the boy. Study the boy while 
he studies the book. Train him to correct and patient think- 
ing. Habits of mind are more important than particular les- 
sons. 

6. It is bad Economy to employ Poor Teachers. They skim 
over the sciences, foster superficial habits, and destroy all enthu- 
siasm in study. Take your watch to a blacksmith, and employ 



444 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

a quack to perform surgical operations ; but tolerate no quackery 
in the teacher. 

1. The Use of poor Educational Instrumentalities is wretched 
Economy. Poor school-houses, poor furniture, and poor appara- 
tus occasion incalculable waste. 

8. Poor Economy is manifest in the Management of our Higher 
Education. We have too many colleges, and hence too many poor 
ones. Money is fixed in piles of brick and stone, while men are 
wanting and professors starve. A strong professor in the recita- 
tion room is of more account than tall chimneys and towering 
domes. 

III. Self-Neglect ok the Part oe Teachers is a 
shocking Educational Waste. 

1. Physical Waste. Sleepless nights over school cares 
waste the vital energies and unfit for teaching. Loud 
and constant talking wears the teacher out, and at the 
same time almost ruins the school. Standing all day is 
a foolish waste. Working during rests is a serious waste, 
as well as a great loss to the school. How can one 
who is committing slow suicide educate ? The teacher 
must sleep well, eat well, recreate well, and husband her 
resources, in order to bring to her school work cheerful- 
ness, vigor, and efficiency. 

2. Soul- Waste. Nothing seems to me more startling 
than the soul-waste in teaching. What proportion of 
our teachers are really growing ? How many by earnest 
and well-directed study are working up to a grander man- 
hood ? I grieve to say it, but it is a sad fact that full 
half of all our teachers are content to drift. Others 
they attempt to educate, themselves they dwarf. Content 
with the meager requirements for teaching in a district 
school, they stand still, or, like Joe Finley's pig, 

" They always grow little, but never grow big." 



EDUCATIONAL WASTE. 445 

What can be more melancholy ? Think of it — more 
than two hundred thousand teachers literally wasting 
their own soul-life, and starving their six million pupils ! 
Only growing men and women can teach. 

3. Social Waste. Fearful is the social waste among 
teachers. The isolated teacher is apt to become a dry 
mummy and a social ninny. Gaze on that unfortunate ! 
Disposition as well as stomach soured, voice harsh and 
loud, attire antiquated, appearance slovenly, manners 
angular and mirth-provoking ! Social dissipation is the 
other extreme, absorbing all the leisure of many teachers. 
Touching only the gayer phases of society, they become 
light and frivolous — butterflies, rather than earnest men 
and women. With a sweet disposition and gentle voice, 
refined manners and dress, and culture in mind and heart, 
the true teacher mingles in the best society as a peer of 
the best men and women. The true teacher is a social as 
well as an educational power. 

Fellow teachers, you can not afford this waste, and society can 
not afford it. You owe it to yourselves, to your pupils, and to 
society to become healthy, intelligent, refined, and efficient. 

IV. The Unwise Use of Text-Books occasions 
Great Waste. — Exclusive book work and exclusive oral 
work are dangerous extremes, to be avoided by the judi- 
cious teacher. Good text-books multiply the power of the 
teacher to educate. Oral instruction makes book work 
intelligible. I certainly have no sympathy with mere 
book work — it is the bane of the old education ; but I 
protest against the extreme of exclusive oral work. Let 
the book work and the oral work go together, and supple- 
ment each other. Let the pupils be trained to connect 
nature and the book, and to use books properly. 



446 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

Y. Complex and Cumbersome Machinery in 
School Management is a Senseless Waste. — System 
we must have ; but, like nature, school work should be 
simplicity itself. In some schools friction wastes half the 
energies of teachers and pupils. One school has fifty 
special regulations ! Another school has one hundred and 
fifty arbitrary signals ! In many schools the teacher is 
required to marh each recitation and report to parents 
weekly ! Machinery is as essential in a school as in a cot- 
ton mill, but the simplest machinery possible that will 
accomplish the work is best in both. Simplicity and di- 
rectness are doubly essential in a school, because you are 
dealing with living beings ; and it is the contact of the 
living teacher with the pupil in the whole process of edu- 
cation that arouses activity and makes every germ of 
knowledge quicken to the fullest development. Per- 
sonal responsibility, constant as though no other pupil 
were associated with him, is the true condition of develop- 
ment ; and unless you secure this condition fully, much 
of the pupil's time and strength is wasted, and your own 
strength is wasted in managing the machine, which, when 
the school dissolves, is worthless. 

VI. The Neglect of Moral Culture is the Su- 
preme Educational Waste. — But, last of all, there is 
a waste that brings loss and sorrow to the world. This is 
neglect of moral and religious instruction in connection 
with intellectual training. Who are the men who are 
causing humanity to blush by their dishonesty and cor- 
ruption, poisoning the world at the same time that they 
are cheating it and astounding it ? Why, men who are in- 
tellectually educated, but who despise the slow methods of 
honest gain and reject the old-fashioned morality of the 
Bible. There must be a searching for the foundations ; 



EDUCATIONAL REFORMS. 4-47 

and that instruction or that education which does not 
make prominent justice as well as benevolence, law as well 
as liberty, honesty as well as thrift, and purity of life as 
well as enjoyment, should be stamped by every true edu- 
cator as a waste and a curse ; for so it will prove in the 
end. 

We understand the importance of our work, the value 
of mental and moral culture. We see the inviting fields 
that call the student to labor, and the waiting world that 
needs his time and the strength of his best cultured pow- 
ers. Let us see to it that no old notions, no routine of 
duty, no shrinking from work or responsibility shall spoil 
our harvest, so that at last we shall look back on a waste 
of energy and time. Let us work while the day lasts, 
with our might. Let us see that all our work is of the 
best kind. Let us train our students for the study, for 
the family, for the state, for the world. If we send them 
forth with the ability to labor, with a love of truth and 
justice, and with a spirit of self-sacrifice, our work will 
be a blessing to them and to the world. 



CHAPTER VI. 

EDUCATIONAL REFORMS. 

The Basis— Eternal Pkhstciples. — The principles 
which underlie methods are beyond price. A method, or 
a way of applying a principle, may be valuable or it may 
be worthless. A method which is not grounded upon 
principles is utterly valueless. Many of the new methods 



448 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

and pretended reforms in education are of this kind, and 
teachers and people often go wild over the thinnest of 
bubbles. 

In the conduct of educational affairs, it seems to me 
that we should equally avoid the folly of ultra-conserva- 
tism and the folly of thorough-going radicalism. For 
my part, I greatly prize Bacon's maxim : " To make a 
stand upon the ancient way, and look about us to discover 
what is the best way." And Bishop Whately's is scarcely 
less wise : "Begin reforming at once ; proceed in reform- 
ing steadily and cautiously ; and go on reforming for 
ever." But let every reform be based upon principles, 
and be the legitimate outgrowth of principles. Such 
reforms will endure. 

Every page of this work, it is fondly believed, breathes the 
spirit of true reform. It is earnestly hoped that every teacher 
who studies these chapters will be imbued with the spirit of re- 
form. In this chapter a few great reforms are emphasized. 

Coeducation. — With all my heart I favor coeducation. 
Everywhere I can see the beneficent effects. The logic of 
results triumphs over the speculations of theorists. One 
by one the great schools of Europe and America throw off 
the shackles of a past barbarism, and admit our daughters 
as well as our sons to all their privileges. Within a few 
decades coeducation promises to become universal, and 
schools for one sex, male or female, will doubtless be 
classed with the relics of a past age. For the millions 
coeducation is a necessity. Do not experience and phi- 
losophy alike testify that it is best for all ? 

Teachers instead of Taskmasters. (J. Gr. Holland.) — "We 
are sorry for the man who did not have, at some period of his 



EDUCATIONAL REFORMS. 449 

childhood or youth, one teacher who filled him with the enthusi- 
asm of study, and brought him into love with knowledge and into 
a genuine delight in the use of his intellectual powers ; one teacher 
— to state it briefly — who understood his business. For, with all 
the advances made in the theories and methods of education, and 
all the elevation of educational standards, it is, and remains, true, 
that the poorest work done in the world is done in the school- 
room. 

In the first place, there is no competent idea of what education 
really is in the average teacher's mind. His whole training has 
misled him, and his own instincts and common sense have in no 
way corrected his educational influences. His work has been the 
careful and industrious memorizing of the materials of his text- 
books, and he has no idea of educating others except by the same 
process. He has never been taught ; he has simply been tasked. 
He is, consequently, a dry man, without enthusiasm and without 
ideas; and the work that he does is simply that of a taskmaster. 
A teacher, in order to succeed, must not only be an enthusiast, 
but he must be profoundly interested in the kind of material that 
comes to his hand to be molded and influenced, and in the pro- 
cesses through which he acts upon it. He exercises all the inge- 
nuities of address and handling to win attention, and is never sat- 
isfied until he has awakened a profound interest in the topics that 
engage his efforts. Every live teacher has his own way of work, 
and accounts it a misfortune to find himself lapsing into the mere 
mechanisms of his prof ession. So unlike him is the average teacher 
that a pupil is always surprised to find him an interesting person, 
who gets outside of his mechanical routine of duty. A teacher's 
duty, as it is commonly understood, is to keep order and hear 
recitations. Beyond this, he is to* mark progress in education, as 
he most incompetently understands it, by arithmetical formulae. 
Nothing more uninteresting and mechanical can be imagined than 
the usual routine of school. 

Parents often wonder why their children are not interested in 
their studies. Why, in the way in which their studies are con- 
ducted, it is quite impossible that they should be interested ! The 
marvel is that they have sufficient interest in their tasks to pursue 



450 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

them at all. Machine education is no more interesting than 
machine preaching. It is simply a long, dry grind, which chil- 
dren are glad to get through with, and upon which they look hack 
with anything hut pleasure and satisfaction. 

The Meteic System in the Common School.* — 
In the metric system the unit is the meter, which is one 
ten-millionth part of a quadrant of the earth's meridian. 
On this unit, the length of which is 39-37 inches, the 
whole system is built. 

Our present system of weights and measures is com- 
posed of fifty words. The metric sy stein is composed of 
twelve words, as follows : 

f 1. Meter, from the Greek metron, signifying a measure. 

2. Liter, from the Greek Ktra, signifying a pound. 

Units J s - ^ ram i fr° m tne Greek gramma, signifying a small 
weight. 

4. Ar, from the Latin area, signifying a surface. 

5. Sler, from the Greek stereos, signifying a solid. 
„ r 6. Milli, from the Latin mille, signifying thousand. 

divisions i ^ Centi, from the Latin centum, signifying hundred. 

L 8. Deci, from the Latin decern, signifying ten. 

r 9. Deka, from the Greek deka, signifying ten. 

Hulti- 10. Ilekto, from the Greek hekaton, signifying hundred. 

ples. | ll. Kilo, from the Greek chilioi, signifying thousand. 

(.12. Myria, from the Greek myrioi, signifying ten thousand. 

The Latin numerals are used to designate fractional 
parts of the unit to which they are prefixed, and the 
Greek numerals to designate multiples. Thus, deci- 

* Prepared especially for this work by Professor Joseph Ficklin, of 
the State University, Columbia, Mo., author of " Ficklin's Complete Alge- 
bra," " Ficklin's Algebraic Problems," etc. The earnest advocacy of the 
metric system by a man of such prominence and acknowledged ability 
must carry great weight, and do much to hasten this great reform. 



EDUCATIONAL REFORMS. 451 

meter means the tenth of a meter, and dehameter means 
ten meters. 

The liter is the unit of measure for grains and liquids, 
and contains as much as a cube each of whose edges is a 
decimeter in length. 

The gram is the unit of weight. It is the weight of 
one cubic centimeter of distilled water at four degrees 
centigrade. 

The ar is the unit of surface for measuring land. It 
is a square each of whose sides is a dehameter. 

The ster is a cube each of whose sides is one meter 
long. 

Metric Tables. — The following simple tables com- 
prehend the whole metric system : 

Monet. 

10 mills make a cent. 

10 cents make a dime. 

10 dimes make a dollar. 

10 dollars.. , make an eagle. 

Length. 

10 millimeters. make a centimeter. 

10 centimeters make a decimeter. 

10 decimeters make a meter. 

10 meters make a dekameter. 

10 dekameters make a hektometer. 

10 hektometers make a kilometer. 

10 kilometers make a myriameter. 

Capacity. 

10 milliliters make a centiliter. 

10 centiliters make a deciliter. 

10 deciliters make a liter. 

10 liters .make a dekaliter. 

10 dekaliters make a hektoliter. 



452 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

Weights. 

10 milligrams make a centigram. 

10 centigrams make a decigram. 

10 decigrams make a gram. 

10 grams make a dekagram. 

10 dekagrams make a hektogram. 

The Square and Cubic Measures 
arc simply the squares and cubes of the measures of length. 

Now in" Use. — It will be observed that we have al- 
ready adopted the metric system in our Federal money. 
This gives ns greatly the advantage over the old system 
of pounds, shillings, and pence, or any other system in 
which the denominations are not decimal. The metric 
has the same advantage over the old system of weights 
and measures that the table of Federal money has over 
that of sterling money. 

The Metric System needs no Defense. — It needs 
only to be seen in its simplicity in order to be adopted by 
all nations ; hence, instead of presenting an elaborate ar- 
gument in favor of the system, I present the system it- 
self, with a statement of some of its advantages. The 
metric system is superior to all others in the following 
respects : 

1. In Uniformity. It is destined to become universal. It 
has already been adopted by more than half the Christian and 
civilized nations of the earth. 

2. In Simplicity. It has already been shown that the system 
contains only twelve words, and these words were not taken from 
any modern language, but from the Latin and Greek. 

3. Its Base, the meter, is unalterable. 

4. Its Multiples and Subdivisions are decimal. The scale of re- 
lation being ten, all reductions and calculations are made precisely 



EDUCATIONAL REFORMS. 453 

as in common numbers. This arrangement will result in a great 
saving of time in the transaction of all business. 

5. The Liter, Gram, Ar, and Ster are derived by an easy re- 
duction from the meter. In our present system there is no such 
relation. 

6. The Names are expressive of Values. Thus, dekameter 
means ten meters. 

Legalized and in Use. — In 1866 the metric sys- 
tem was legalized by Congress, and it is now used by very 
many of our scientific men. It is used in the work of the 
United States Coast Survey ; it is used in many of the 
laboratories of our colleges ; it is used by analytical chem- 
ists and by many physicians ; and those who have deal- 
ings with foreign countries are compelled to use it. Now, 
how can the system be made obligatory in this country ? 
By action of Congress. But Congress will not act in this 
matter until the people are ready for the change. How 
can the people be made to see that a change is desirable ? 
By presenting the metric system to them ; and of all the 
means of doing this, I know no better plan than to have 
it taught to the millions of children now in the common 
schools of the land. It now requires months for the pu- 
pil to commit to memory the tables in the common sys- 
tem, and the operations in denominate numbers are usu- 
ally laborious. The whole metric system can be learned 
in one day or less, and, the scale of relation being ten, the 
operations are the same as in Federal money. 

Time and Money Saved. — I verily believe that if 
this system were adopted, arithmetic could be cut down 
at least one third, and the time for its study correspond- 
ingly shortened. A few years since the " International 
Decimal Association " of England sent a circular to 
school-teachers, asking how much money would be saved 



454: SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

annually in that country if the metric should take the 
place of the old system. The answer was that there 
would be a saying of about one million seven hundred 
and fifty thousand dollars. 

Apparatus Needed. — In order to teach the metric 
system successfully, it is necessary to have a set of metric 
apparatus : the graduated meter, the liter, and the gram, 
with some of their subdivisions and multiples . The dis- 
sected and graduated liter-block is also a very desirable 
piece of apparatus. 

Every school should be supplied with such a set, and 
the time is not far distant when it will be considered just 
as essential a part of common-school apparatus as black- 
boards and maps. 

Universal Use Predicted. — The metric system is 
now used by about four hundred and twenty millions of 
people, and I predict that, in less than one generation, it 
will be used in more than nine tenths of the business 
transactions of all civilized nations. 

I close this article with the following beautiful extract 
from John Quincy Adams : 

"If man upon earth be an improvable being; if that universal 
peace which was the object of a Saviour's mission, which is the 
desire of the philosopher, the longing of the philanthropist, the 
trembling hope of the Christian, is a blessing to which the futuri- 
ty of mortal man has a claim of more than mortal promise ; if the 
spirit of evil is, before the final consummation of things, to be cast 
down from his dominion over men, and bound in the chains of a 
thousand years, the foretaste here of man's eternal felicity ; then 
this system of common instruments to accomplish all the changes 
of social and friendly commerce will furnish the links of sym- 
pathy between the inhabitants of the most distant regions ; the 
meter will surround the world in use as well as in multiplied ex- 



EDUCATIONAL REFORMS. 455 

tension, and one language of weights and measures will be spoken 
from the equator to the poles." 

The Spelling Reform.* (Professor F. A. March.) 

I. History of the Spelling Reform. — During 
three centuries many earnest efforts have been made to 
secure for English-speaking peoples a phonetic system of 
spelling. But whenever these schemes of reformed spell- 
ing were broached, the literary classes took it as a kind 
of personal insult, and overwhelmed the reformers with 
immeasurable reproach. It is only within the last half 
of the present century that this clamor has subsided, but 
a complete revolution has at last taken place in the views 
of our scholars. The leading philologists of England and 
America are now the earnest advocates of the spelling re- 
form. 

II. The English Orthography is the Worst on 
the Planet. — The language was reduced to writing in 

* This article, condensed from an exhaustive presentation of the sub- 
ject in a recent number of the " Princeton Review," was sent to the au- 
thor with a request to prepare an article for this work ; but he returned 
it with the following letter : 

" Lafayette Colleqe, Easton, Pa., February 20, 18S0. 
" President J. Baldwin : 

" Dear Sir : I am very glad that you are to have an article in your 
book in favor of spelling reform, and esteem it an honor that you ask me 
to prepare it. I judge, however, that on the whole it will be likely to 
help the cause more if you assume the responsibility for the chapter. I 
do not see how I can improve the draft of it which you have made, and so 
made your own. I have no doubt it will do good. If there are any 
points of detail, e. g., facts, or spelling according to the different rules of 
the associations, in which you think that I can help, I shall be glad to try. 
" Very truly yours, 

" F. A. March." 



456 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

Roman letters by Roman missionaries. They used the let- 
ters with the powers which they then had in Latin. But 
there were many more sounds than letters, and the al- 
phabet was eked out with runes and digraphs. Then 
came the Norman Conquest. The Anglo-Saxons and 
Normans threw their languages into a sort of hotch-potch. 
Many of the words of each race were hard for the other 
race to pronounce. The scholars were disposed to spell 
their native words in the old book fashion, and the other 
words as the people pronounced them. Silent letters 
were left standing, and strange letters were inserted to no 
purpose in ill-directed attempts to represent the strange 
utterances. Then a shifting took place of the whole 
gamut, so to speak, of the vowel sounds. Meantime 
printing came into use, and the Dutch printers, as best 
they could, propagated and perpetuated these monstrosi- 
ties and absurdities. Written words came to be associ- 
ated with spoken words as wholes, without referring to 
the sounds which the separate letters would indicate. Al- 
together we have as a consequence attained the worst 
spelling on the planet. 

III. The Spelling Refobm is a Public Necessity. 
— Ignorance is blind and bad. The illiterate are largely 
out of the reach of the Bible and the influence of the 
press. Of the criminals in England and Wales in 1872 
but three per cent, could read and write. Twenty-one 
per cent, of our native citizens can not read and write. 
In England they are worse off than we are. Illiterates 
there are reckoned at thirty-three per cent, of the popu- 
lation. In other Protestant countries of Europe they are 
comparatively few. In Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, 
Norway, there are none to speak of ; some of the states 
have none. 



EDUCATIONAL REFORMS. 45 Y 

One of the causes of the excessive illiteracy among the 
English-speaking peoples is the difficulty of the English 
spelling. We are now having earnest testimony to this 
fact from scholars and educators in England and Amer- 
ica. The bulk of the children pass through the schools 
without becoming even tolerable spellers and readers. 
The time and money which should educate the masses are 
wasted in the vain attempt to teach them to read and 
spell. 

IV. The Spelling Refokm is one of Incalcula- 
ble Value. 

1. Millions of Dollars will be saved annually by omitting 
Silent Letters. Our journals and books will be less bulky, and tbe 
cost of printing will be reduced nearly one tbird. 

2. The Time spent in Writing will be reduced nearly Fifty 
per Cent. The omission of silent letters reduces tbe labor nearly 
one tbird. Eemedying tbe necessity for constant reference to tbe 
dictionary will greatly lessen tbe labor. Think of the precious 
years of the best lives wasted on account of a barbarous orthog- 
raphy. 

3. Two or Three Years of Precious Time will be saved in the 
Elementary School. Children will be able to accumulate large 
stores of useful knowledge during the time that they now squan- 
der in the vain attempt to master our monstrous orthography. 

4. The Spelling Reform will render possible the Education of 
the Masses. The task of learning to read and spell our language, 
now requiring years for its accomplishment, will then be achieved 
in a few months. As we approach the reform of English spelling 
from this direction, we naturally regard writing as a contrivance 
for communication, as apparatus for teaching, as part of the ma- 
chinery of civilization and progress ; and the amendment of it is 
seen to be like the improvement of other labor-saving machinery. 
It is doubtful whether the invention of the steam-engine or the 
telegraph contributes as much to tbe welfare of man as would the 
invention and introduction of a good phonetic system of spelling. 

20 



458 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

V. Objections to the Spelling Reform. — The ob- 
jections to change in our orthography are the same in kind 
which meet the introduction of any improved machinery 
for common work ; as the sewing-machine, the type- 
writer, or the metric system of weights and measures. 
Everybody knows the old way ; nobody knows the new. 
The new apparatus is at first imperfect and costly. The 
old must be mostly lost. These objections to the spelling 
reform, for the most part, disappear when confronted with 
a properly constructed phonetic alphabet. The change in 
the characters will be so slight that it will be easy for 
persons familiar with the old orthography to read the new, 
and rising generations will, from necessity, be instructed 
in both the new and the old. Scholars have lost all 
patience with the etymological objection. All true phi- 
lologists and philological bodies uniformly brand it as a 
monstrous absurdity, both from a practical and scientific 
point of view. 

Professor Lounsbury, of Yale College, speaks of the 
reform as one "which numbers among its advocates every 
linguistic scholar of any eminence whatever, and which, 
in addition, includes every one who has made the scientific 
study of English a specialty. It may be taken as certain, 
and agreed by all whose judgment is entitled to consider- 
ation, that there are no sound arguments against phonetic 
spelling to be drawn from scientific and historical consid- 
erations. These all make in its favor. But suppose they 
did not. The prevailing interest in spelling is not to be 
found in historical or etymological considerations — a hun- 
dred etymologists, a million men and women. The ob- 
jectors are mostly found among the class of half -taught 
dabblers in philology." 

VI. Plans of the Spelling Reformers. — All 



EDUCATIONAL REFORMS. 459 

thoughtful persons recognize the immens importance of 
the spelling reform. But the practical question, How 
shall the change from the old to the new be effected ? 
must be answered. Two plans, the gradual and the radi- 
cal, are urged. The filological and spelling reform asso- 
ciations have agreed upon a fonetic alfabet, and also 
adopted rules for its gradual introduction. Our leading 
primary readers are now printed in the Leigh fonetic al- 
fabet, and in this form widely used in our best schools. 
, Many of our leading journals are using to a limited ex- 
tent the reformed spelling. All this seems to promis 
fairly. Why not begin at once to write and print in the 
proposed alfabet ? The scholars ar obliged to admit that 
the chang would be too great in an immediate and com- 
plet adoption of it. It can not be introctuct into the 
newspapers or the common literature of a generation who 
know no spelling but the old. There must be gradual 
progress, a transition period, in the issues of the popular 
press. The ideal alfabet is a guid to direct the minor 
changes. It may also come into immediate use in the 
schools in teaching beginners to read, and in scientific 
publications, as an alternativ or key alfabet. All our 
dictionaries, for example, need such an alfabet to giy the 
pronunciation. So do filological essays, geografical works, 
and many others. Once made familiar in these ways, a 
perfect fonetic spelling may gradually displace the old. 

VII. The Change must Come. — No one wishes 
there should be no change. Language is everywhere and 
always changing. But many say : "Let the change be 
gradual, as it has been heretofore. " Let such remember 
how the world has changed in the last fifty years — how 
rapidly we communicate. What with our railroads and 
telegraphs and newspapers, and our societies with their 



460 SYSTEM AND PROGRESS IN EDUCATION. 

meetings and conventions, a wider and more powerful 
concentration of the assent of thinking persons can be 
effected in a single summer than would have been possible 
in a hundred years three centuries ago. But the assent 
of thinking persons is all that is needed for this reform. 
Why should we not move on as far in a summer as the 
old folks did in a century ? A great body of men of action 
seem now to be interested in the spelling reform, and 
ready at least to urge inquiry and effort. A rising hum 
is heard all through the press, the schools, and the cen- 
ters of popular influence, which seems to herald a good 
time coming. The air is full of hope. 

Technical Education. (J. D. Philbeick.) 

(1.) Education is a preparation for life. (2.) Education is of two kinds : gen- 
eral education, which forms capable and honest men and women, and technical 
education, which fits men and women for some profession or trade, by means of 
which they can gain their livelihood. (3.) The common school is for the first 
stage of general education, and particularly for the ma6S of children who are not 
destined to a higher stage of general culture. (4.) The common school receives its 
pupils at sis years of age, retains them eight years, and dismisses them at fourteen 
years of age. (5.) Useful technical education, in a course side by side with the 
general education of the common school, has been proved to be possible, but not 
generally practicable, and such a combination as a system is not approved. (6.) 
The common school should be strictly held to exclusively general education, and 
this will be best when it forms the best basis for the technical education of the ap- 
prentice which should follow it. (7.) The common school should not attempt to 
teach what is called the old curriculum of studies scientifically or exhaustively, 
but for practical ends; and thus time will be gained for teaching in the same 
practical manner drawing, the elements of geometry, physics, chemistry, natu- 
ral history, and applied mathematics. (8.) Girls should be taught in the common 
school the elements of household economy, and especially sewing, cutting out, 
and fitting, and boys, where the circumstances permit, modeling, carving, and 
technology. (9.) It would be well for country schools to have a garden attached, 
and for all boys' schools to have a room for special uses, containing a bench, a 
vise, a lathe, and a few of the most common tools. (10.) Schools of apprentices 
should be established in great variety for boys and girls who have completed 
the common-school education. 



PART X. 
GRADED SCHOOLS. 



CHAPTER I. — Educational Evolution. 
II. — Geaded-Sohool Systems. 
III. — The Graded School — Duties of Directoes. 
IV. — Couese of Study and Programme. 
V. — Grades and Grading. 
VI. — Examinations, Reports, and Records. 



PART TENTH. 
GRADED SCHOOLS* 



CHAPTER I. 



EDUCATIONAL EVOLUTION". 



I. Highest Good. — The testimony of history points 
to the hypothesis that in the beginning man was endowed 
with certain innate capabilities, and surrounded with the 
conditions necessary for calling them forth. The incen- 
tives to activity were found in the natural tendency of 
the human soul to seek its own highest good, combined 
with the circumstances arising from man's relations to 
nature and to God. These, as a constant threefold force, 
have ever impelled him onward toward a higher life. His 
progress from savage toward civilized life has been marked 
by a series of well-defined periods of improvement. Each 
successive step in the series furnished new inspiration, and 
opened up before him increased possibilities. Achieve- 
ments which in one age were regarded as the limit of 
human ambition, in a succeeding one marked but the 
beginning of a new impulse. 

* President G. L. Osborne, of the State Normal School, Second Dis- 
trict, Warrensburg, Missouri, prepared Part Tenth expressly for this 
work, but reserves the right to use the matter elsewhere. These chap- 
ters must prove of great value to school boards as well as to principals 
and assistants. 



464 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

II. Division of Labor. — The most primitive form of society 
is that in which each does all. The individual leads a kind of in- 
dependent existence, acquires only such knowledge as is the com- 
mon property of the race, and turns his attention to all forms of 
handicraft. But this so manifestly contracts the limits of possible 
attainment, that long before man emerges from savage life the 
necessity for division of labor receives partial recognition, and 
early in the history of civilization it is fully recognized as a neces- 
sary condition of human progress. The degree of progress made 
in the arts and sciences by any people is measured by their skill 
in giving practical application to this principle. It intensifies the 
life by counteracting the dissipation of force and confining the 
mental and physical powers in a more definite channel of effort. 
To this principle may be referred the origin of occupations, call- 
ings, trades, and professions. Nor with the origin of the various 
industries does its potency cease. As society advances and com- 
munities expand, it tends to promote more and more exact divis- 
ions, and thus to evolve still higher results. It is scarcely necessary 
to elaborate this truth. Illustrations may be found in every walk 
of life, and especially in the Great West, where towns and cities 
spring up as by magic. A merchant establishes a trading-post on 
the frontier. In his collection of merchandise may be found dry 
goods, groceries, general notions, books and stationery, hardware, 
agricultural implements — in short, most of the articles needed in 
a new country. Soon a town grows up around him, and he 
finds himself in the midst of a prosperous community. Other 
merchants are attracted to the place and enter business. His 
trade falls off in some articles and increases in others, in exact ac- 
cordance with the current of competition. In the next purchase 
he adjusts his stock to the " demands of trade," and the modi- 
fication continues with each succeeding purchase. His business 
daily increases in amount and efficiency, but its miscellaneous 
character constantly diminishes, until we find him completely oc- 
cupied in one branch of trade, and pushing it with all the force of 
mind, muscle, and capital at his command. The same is true of 
his competitors in business. The variety once found in a single 
store is now divided among many, each confined to a definite line 



EDUCATIONAL EVOLUTION. 465 

of industry. The universal good is thus realized iu the competi- 
tion of trade and the greater excellence of the articles offered for 
sale. Now, this harmony is not the outgrowth of a conference 
among merchants, hut simply the result of necessary obedience to 
the universal law of progress above laid down. Division of labor 
is with them an indispensable condition of success. 

The same law applies with undiminished force to all tbe va- 
rious industries, trades, and professions, and also to educational 
development. 

III. The SonooL. — In our earliest conception of a district 
school, we picture an indefinite number of young persons, ranging 
in age from five to twenty years, and possessing scholastic attain- 
ments as various as their ages, collected into a single room and 
presided over by one teacher. Each pupil pursues a course of bis 
own choosing, and the teacher laboriously passes the day in giv- 
ing " individual " assistance and hearing " individual recitations." 
This school is modeled after the system of family education that 
pravailed in Europe during the sixteenth and seventeenth centu- 
ries. Classification forms no part of the scheme. It is in the full- 
est sense of the word a " mixed" school. 

A solution of the educational problem under this organization 
involves tbe maximum time and labor as factors with the mini- 
mum results as product. While it may be true that "there is no 
royal road to learning," nevertheless the immense waste of time, 
means, and vital force attending these primitive efforts in educa- 
tional methods acts as a perpetual incentive in promoting the 
search for a tetter "road." 

IV. Grouping— The first step in the direction of reform 
groups into classes pupils pursuing the same studies and possess- 
ing similar attainments; and a second step still further simplifies 
the work by confining all to a definite course of study. The great 
waste of effort consequent upon needless repetition is thus avoid- 
ed, and the time 6aved to teacher and pupil enables both to confine 
their energies within less compass. The consequence is a rapid 
improvement in the efficiency of the schools, and a corresponding 
increase of intelligence among the masses. A school of this type 
represents our best rural schools of the present day. The oppor- 



466 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

tunities for advancement in such a school are much more favor- 
able than in one of the primitive type, but the limit of results is 
ultimately reached, and further progress can only be attained un- 
der new conditions. The time required for the actual work of 
instruction is greatly abridged by proper classification and a lim- 
ited course of study, but the range of subjects requiring the teach- 
er's attention is not very materially lessened. To reduce this range 
and concentrate his efforts within still narrower limits constitutes 
a third step of advancement. This is accomplished in the more 
populous communities by concentrating several schools at a cen- 
tral point, separating the pupils into sections corresponding to 
different fixed grades of advancement in the prescribed course of 
study, and assigning a separate teacher to each grade, the teacher 
of the highest grade being intrusted with the general manage- 
ment of the school as a whole. Thus arose the modern graded 
school, from which have grown the various city school systems. 

V. The Graded School. — In the preceding paragraphs, the 
growth of the school as an institution of society has been briefly 
outlined, beginning with the primitive form, in which classification 
constitutes no part of the scheme, and ending with the graded 
school, in which division of labor is the ruling principle. We are 
not to conclude, however, that an assemblage of several schools in 
the same building, taught by as many teachers and presided over 
by a principal, necessarily constitutes a graded school. Both 
East and West may be found numerous examples which possess 
all these characteristics, and yet are far less entitled to the term 
" graded " than many a modest country school. Looking in upon 
them, we find nothing but a collection of mixed schools, each 
wasting its energies over an indefinite range of subjects and need- 
less duplication of work, and all practically independent of each 
other. Such aggregations can not be called graded schools in any 
proper sense of the word. They simply afford some of the con- 
ditions out of which, in each separate case, a graded school may 
be developed. To accomplish this there must be — 

(1.) A definite plan of action, assigning to each department its 
appropriate share of work, and looking toward complete unity of 
purpose in the management of the school as a whole ; and, 



GRADED-SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 467 

(2.) A principal possessing the requisite intelligence and execu- 
tive ability to carry out the plan. 

Definition. — A graded school may be defined as one whose 
organization is based upon, and whose classification and daily 
work are determined by, a course of study divided into steps, 
or grades, corresponding to different degrees of attainment in 
knowledge. 



CHAPTER II. 

GEADED-SCHOOI SYSTEMS. 

"When all the public schools of a city are placed under one 
management, and are organized and conducted in accordance with 
a graded course of study, they constitute a graded-school system. 
Many of the large cities of the United States have graded-school 
systems. These systems are always the result of educational 
growth, and consequently we find them differently organized in 
different cities. 

I. Boaed op Education. — The legal control is vested in a 
body of officers ranging in number from six to forty-five, and 
designated by various corporate titles, as, School Committee, Board 
of Controllers, Board of Directors, Board of Education, etc. 

1. Organization of the Board. The board organizes for the 
transaction of business by electing a president, secretary, treasurer, 
and such other officers as may be necessary. 

2. Powers of the Board. The powers of the board are fixed 
by law, and usually extend to such matters as the purchase and 
sale of school property, the erection of suitable buildings, the em- 
ployment and dismissal of superintendents and teachers, and the 
enactment of all needful rules for the control of the schools. The 
law generally confers upon boards great discretionary powers, 
which are intended to be exercised in promoting the efficiency of 
the schools. 



468 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

II. Geneeal Management. — The general management of the 
schools is usually intrusted to a superintendent and one or more 
assistants, who are chosen by the board. 

1. Superintendent. The superintendent and teachers consti- 
tute an executive force in the management of the schools. The 
superintendent, as chief of this force, sustains direct official rela- 
tions with the Board of Education. He is expected to prepare 
the course of study, and mature all general plans of organization 
and management, and, after their adoption by the board, to en- 
force them through his subordinates. He attends the meetings 
of the board, and from time to time submits brief reports of the 
condition of the schools, adding such suggestions as he may deem 
important. At the close of the year he prepares an extended re- 
port, showing the workings of the system in detail, and recom- 
mending such changes and improvements as educational progress 
and the growing wants of the system demand. In short, this 
officer not only acts as chief executive for the Board of Educa- 
tion, but he also furnishes the great mass of information which is 
to enable its members to discharge their duties intelligently. 

2. Assistcmt Superintendent. This officer usually acts under 
the direction of the superintendent. His duties are more inti- 
mately connected with the daily management of the schools. 
These he visits and carefully inspects as often as practicable, re- 
porting the results to his superior. In addition to this, he attends 
to such other duties as may be assigned him in the administration 
of the system. 

III. Teachees. — Each school is placed in charge of a principal 
and one or more assistants. 

1. Principal. The principal exercises general control over 
the school, and is held responsible for the grading, discipline, and 
management, which are left entirely to him. In some cities he 
also assumes personal charge of one grade of the school, but is 
allowed an assistant, who assumes control and conducts the exer- 
cises in his absence. 

2. Assistants. The assistants are subordinate to the principal, 
and are expected to act under his direction in the classification 
and management of their respective grades, and to render such 



GRADED-SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 469 

assistance as may be necessary to promote good discipline in the 
school at large. They are sometimes classed, according to length 
of service and qualifications, as "head assistants," "first assist- 
ants," " second assistants," etc., and their salaries graded accord- 
ing to classification, head assistants receiving the highest. 

IV. Obganization. — The entire course of instruction generally 
embraces about twelve years, and is apportioned among schools 
of different rank, very nearly as shown in the following diagram : 

f k (1.) Primary, 4 years. 

n , . „„„„„„ 1. Elementary school, 8 years. •< 

Complete coarse, J ( (2.) Grammar, 4 yeare. 

12 years. 1 2> High scho ° 1 ' 4 yeara ' 

[ 3. Normal school (special course). 

1. Elementary Schools. For greater system in distributing 
school attendance, the city is divided into districts, and a school 
is located at some convenient point in each. These schools take 
the name of the geographical division, and are called " district " 
schools. In some cities district limits coincide with ward lines, 
and on that account the schools are called " ward " schools. 

(1.) Primary Schools. The line of division between primary 
and grammar school is not distinctly marked ; and there is some 
difficulty in fixing the exact point at which the primary course 
ends and the grammar-school course begins. But, for all practi- 
cal purposes, the course of the primary school may be considered 
as extending to the close of the fourth year, at which point oral 
lessons in grammar are usually introduced, and the grammar-school 
course properly begins. Generally the term primary is applied to 
any school in which only the lower grades of the district-school 
course are taught. Primaries are often established in sparsely 
populated districts as a matter of convenience and economy. 
They are also sometimes opened in densely populated districts, as 
a means of relief to the grammar schools. Pupils completing the 
course of these primaries are transferred to the nearest school of 
the proper grade to receive them. 

(2.) Grammar Schools. The grammar schools constitute the 
highest division of the district schools. They generally contain 



470 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

all the primary grades, in addition to the regular grammar grades. 
Theoretically, at least, they are of coordinate rank, and such of 
their pupils as complete the course and pass the required exami- 
nation are transferred to the high school. 

2. High School. This school, as its name imports, is the high- 
est known to the city system, and is intended to complete the 
puhlic-school training. On this account it often has two courses 
— a classical and a general course. The former is designed for 
those who are preparing to enter college or university ; the latter, 
on the other hand, is intended for such as do not desire to carry 
their studies beyond the public school. The number of high 
schools necessary for any given city is determined by the demand. 
Boston has eight ; New York has no high school so called, but 
the " College of the City of New York" is a part of the public- 
school system, and fills the place of a high school ; Cleveland, 
Ohio, has four ; Louisville, Kentucky, has two ; Chicago, Illinois, 
has one central and three division* high schools; St. Louis, Mis- 
souri, has one, the " branch " high schools having been recently 
consolidated with the grammar schools by the addition of a ninth 
grade to the course. 

3. Normal School. As a means of supplying the district 
schools witb trained teachers, a normal school frequently forms 
part of a city system. Being a special school, its course is made 
up of reviews of the district-school course and such additional 
training as the young teacher especially needs. To the normal 
school are admitted young ladies from the graduating classes of 
the high school, and, in some cases, from the grammar schools. 

V. Organization of Graded Schools in Smaller Cities and 
in Villages.— The above outline may be taken as a type of the 
graded-school systems of cities having 100,000 population, or over. 
As the city diminishes in size, the school system gradually be- 
comes less and less complex by contraction. First, the assistant 
superintendency disappears, then the normal school, and soon the 
classification of assistant teachers. 

In cities of less than 15,000 inhabitants, the high school as a 

* By division is meant a district. 



THE SCHOOL— DUTIES OF DIRECTORS. 471 

distinct feature is seldom found, but appears as a high-school 
department in connection with the most conveniently located 
grammar school. A supervising principal takes the place of city 
superintendent, and discharges the duties of both principal and 
superintendent. A part of the day he devotes to hearing classes 
from the high-school department, and such of the grammar grades 
as the circumstances require, and the remaining time he spends in 
the work of superintending. As the number of schools in the city 
diminishes, he gives more and more of his time to actual teaching- 
Cities and towns of less than 4,000 inhabitants frequently have 
but one graded school. In such cases, it is not uncommon for the 
principal to have exclusive charge of the advanced grade in addi- 
tion to the general management of the school, no provision being 
made for supplying his place during temporary absence in super- 
vising the other grades. In order to find time for this duty, va- 
rious expedients are adopted, none of which are free from objec- 
tion. Some of these are the following : 

1. The pupils are left without special oversight, all being re- 
quired to engage in silent study, and, at the return of the princi- 
pal, to report for any idleness or misbehavior. 

2. They are left in charge of a monitor, who oversees the 
study and reports all cases of idleness or disorderly conduct. 

3. They are left in care of an advanced pupil, who continues 
the recitations and reports as monitor. 

4. They are dismissed an hour or two earlier on visiting days. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE GRADED SCHOOL — DUTIES OE DIRECTORS. 

I. Grounds and Building. — The locality and its associations 
have much more to do with the success of a school than is gener- 
ally supposed. Dilapidated, unsightly buildings, in the midst of 



472 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

bleak, treeless grounds, are preeminently suggestive of irregularity 
and truancy. The tenacity with which youthful experiences cling 
to us in after life should serve to remind school officers that it is 
their duty to take advantage of the impressibility of childhood, 
and render school-day memories doubly precious and lasting by 
making the school building and its surroundings as attractive a3 
the circumstances will permit. Not only should ample means be 
furnished for the promotion of health and effective work within 
doors, but reasonable provision should be made for the comfort 
and enjoyment of the children while on the playground. A fence 
costs but little, grass grows almost without attention, and young 
forest trees may generally be had for the planting. Then, why 
neglect a matter which costs so little, and yet brings such large 
returns in the form of good health and genuine pleasure ? 

1. Selection of Site. Very grave mistakes are often made in 
the selection of sites. The prevailing taste seems to incline to- 
ward commanding positions, regardless of convenience of access or 
real fitness. This weakness is most common in the smaller towns, 
where a high bluff or bald knob is frequently selected, to the great 
detriment of school interests. The object doubtless is to adver- 
tise the educational advantages of the place by giving special 
prominence to the school-house. This is a laudable, but, in most 
cases, mistaken ambition. Such a principle of selection is a good 
one when used in locating fortifications or signal stations, but is of 
very doubtful utility when applied to the selection of eligible 
sites for school-buildings. 

The site selected should be as nearly central as the nature of 
the case will admit, considering — 1, healthfulness of location; 2, 
convenience of access; 3, influences of the neighborhood; 4, ex- 
tent and fitness of the grounds. 

2. Extent and Arrangement of Grounds. The ground should 
not be less than one half acre in extent, and the building should 
be so placed as to leave about one fifth of this area in front. This 
space, except what is needed for walks, should be reserved for 
ornamentation. The playground should be located at the sides 
and rear of the building, and separated into two equal parts by a 
tight fence extending from the building to the rear. The most 



THE SCHOOL— DUTIES OF DIRECTORS. 473 

secluded of the divisions thus formed should he assigned to the 
girls ; the other, to the hoys. Forest trees should be planted 
in groups at convenient points, leaving the body of the play- 
grounds unobstructed, and still affording shade or screens wher- 
ever desired. 

3. Building. The building should be constructed with care- 
ful attention to the wants of a good school. 

(1.) It should be sufficiently large to meet the present demands 
of the district and any reasonable prospective growth. 

(2.) Careful and effective provision should be made for heat, 
light, and ventilation. 

(3.) It should be provided with a wash-room, a proper num- 
ber of cloak-rooms, and also an assembly-room. 

(4.) The entrance-halls should be wide, and so arranged as to 
afford easy oversight of the pupils during assembly or dismission. 

(5.) Each school-room should have full nine hundred feet of 
floor space, and should open directly into the entrance-hall and 
one cloak-room. Adjacent rooms should communicate with each 
other. 

(6.) School-room and hall doors should open outward. 

II. Fuenittjee — Kind and Akeangement. — 1. Every school- 
room should be provided with a case for books and apparatus. All 
school-desks should be selected with great care. The prime ob- 
ject should be to choose such as will protect the health of the 
pupil, while affording the greatest possible convenience and com- 
fort in the use. 

2. Furniture should be so arranged as to promote the discipline 
of the school, and, at the same time, afford ample facilities for the 
management of classes. 

Desk and seat should be so adjusted as to give the pupil a 
good position while using them. 

3. No aisle should be less than two feet wide. 

Side and rear aisles should be at least three and one half feet 
in width. 

Cross aisle in front of teacher's desk should be from four to 
six feet wide. 

III. Afpaeatus and Woeks of Eefeeence. — 1. Blackboard. 



474 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

Each school-room should be provided with good blackboard sur- 
face on all the walls except between windows. This surface 
should be slightly inclined forward, in order to throw all reflected 
rays of light below the eyes of pupils when seated. 

(1.) Blackboard intended for pupils' use should be at least four 
feet wide. The space between board and floor should not exceed 
two feet in primary rooms, and two and one half feet in other 
rooms. 

(2.) Blackboard for teachers' use should be in front of pupils 
when seated at desks, and should not be less than eight feet wide, 
to afford proper space for programmes, illustrations, etc. 

2. Every school-room should be provided with clock, ther- 
mometer, call-bell, dictionary, and the means of illustrating the 
subjects taught. 

3. Primary rooms should be supplied with charts (including 
reading, natural history, and color charts), numeral frame, object- 
teaching forms, and pictures. 

4. The school at large should be supplied with globes — hemi- 
sphere, and mounted — outline maps, historical charts, mathemati- 
cal solids, magnet, pocket compasj, etc. 

5. A few standard works of general reference are also essen- 
tial, as unabridged dictionary, encyclopaedia of universal knowl- 
edge, encyclopaedia of biography, pronouncing gazetteer, great 
industries of the United States, etc. 

IV. Regulations. — By regulations is meant a code of rules 
for the guidance of the principal and his assistants in the general 
management of the school. It is true, boards of education can 
not forecast results, nor can they determine in advance what 
should be done in individual cases ; but they can definitely set at 
rest many questions that would otherwise greatly interfere with 
the success of the school. Besides, whatever can properly be 
regulated by general rule should not be reserved for special action. 
One of the most fruitful sources of failure in conducting graded 
schools in our smaller towns is too much personal interference 
on the part of school officers. Before a graded school can be of 
much value, it must have a settled policy. In order to realize 
this, the duties of school officer must be clearly distinguished 



THE SCHOOL— DUTIES OF DIRECTORS. 475 

from those of school-teacher, and each must confine himself to his 
legitimate sphere. Let there be a few plain regulations adopted 
for the guidance of teachers, outlining clearly the wishes of the 
board in the management of the school, and there will be little 
need of individual instructions from directors. 

The regulations should embrace such topics as the following: 
(1.) The duties of principal. (2.) Duties of assistants. (3.) Ad- 
mission of pupils, covering such subjects as age, non-residence, 
contagious diseases, etc. (4.) Time of opening school a. m. and 
p. m., number and length of intermissions, recesses, and length of 
daily session. (5.) Prolonged absence unexcused, habitual tardi- 
ness, irregularity, and truancy. (6.) Suspension. (7.) Holidays 
and vacations. (8.) Course of study. (9.) Eesignation of teach- 
ers. (10.) Temporary vacancies. 

V. Selection op Peincipal and Assistants. — Great care 
should be exercised in the choice of principal and assistants. Much 
harm often results from the failure of directors to distinguish be- 
tween the discharge of official duty and the conferring of personal 
favors. Duty demands that the choice shall be based on fitness 
only ; relationship, friendship, and party must be ignored, except, 
perhaps, in the rare case of equal fitness. To brave the censure 
of defeated candidates and their friends may be a difficult thing 
to do, but the man who is unequal to the task should never ac- 
cept an office. The highest duty of the public officer is to the 
community at large. 

1. Principal. In the selection of principal, something more 
than mere scholarship and experience in teaching should be re- 
quired. A man may possess both of these qualifications and still 
be unfit for principal of the smallest graded school. "When two 
applicants possess equal scholastic qualifications, the one having had 
successful experience as principal should be chosen. Of several 
applicants possessing like qualifications in other respects and no 
experience, the one showing the clearest knowledge of the graded 
school and its management should have the preference. Directors 
should require all applicants, whether posse'ssing experience or 
not, to have a good theoretical knowledge of the duties of the po- 
sition ; and, in general, those who have not made the organization 



476 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

and management of graded schools a subject of careful study 
should be rejected. 

2. Assistant. What has been said of principal applies also to 
assistant in a restricted sense. The assistant need not know all 
about the management of the school as a whole, but such knowl- 
edge would add greatly to her usefulness as a member of the 
corps. She would thus have enlarged views, of her own work, 
and from that standpoint could discharge her duties as assistant 
with greater intelligence. 

In addition to the usual qualifications of teacher, every assist- 
ant should at least know— (1) what a graded school is; (2) 
wherein the duties of assistant differ from those of an independent 
teacher ; (3) how to organize and conduct the classes of any given 
grade in harmony with the general plan. Less theoretical knowl- 
edge than this should very rarely be accepted; much more is 
desirable. 



CHAPTER IV. 

COURSE OF STUDY AND PROGRAMME. 

Definitions. — The field of knowledge is so broad, and the sub- 
jects embraced therein are so numerous and varied, that it becomes 
necessary for each institution of learning to confine its instruction 
to a few subjects selected from the many. The subjects thus se- 
lected, when arranged in the order of natural dependence, begin- 
ning with the simplest, constitute a course of study. When such 
a course is divided into successive steps or grades, and a definite 
time allotted for the completion of each, it is called a graded 
course. 

Then, a course of study for graded schools possesses the follow- 
ing characteristics : 

1. The amount and kind of work are prescribed. 

2. The subjects are placed in the order of Datural dependence, 
beginning with the simplest. 



COURSE OF STUDY AND PROGRAMME. 477 

8. The entire work is separated into divisions and subdivisions, 
and a definite time allotted for the completion of each. 

I. Preparation of Courses — General Principles. 

A well-ordered course of study must conform to certain general 
principles, which, from their influence in determining the charac- 
ter and extent of the course, may be called limits. These limits 
may be classed, according to origin, into subjective and objective. 
The subjective limits may be traced to the nature of mind and its 
activities; the objective, to conditions exterior to mind. 

1. Subjective Limits. 

(1.) The Nature of Mind suggests and determines the different 
Lines of Culture to be provided in the Course. 

The true aim of elementary education is to avoid grooves and 
specialties, and lay the foundation for a full, rounded culture of 
all the mental faculties. The nature of mind is such that any 
course designed for this purpose should embrace several correla- 
tive lines of knowledge. At the dawn of intelligence these lines 
seem to be virtually one ; but as experience widens, and perception 
grows clearer, they gradually diverge, and, one by one, succes- 
sively appear in consciousness as separate lines of thought. [See 
Circle of Science — Mental Unit.] 

The earliest intelligent efforts of children are to express their 
struggling thoughts and desires in some form of Language. 
Sense perception impels them toward Natural Science, but, 
with the first steps in that direction, the idea of number rises 
into consciousness. Their Historical Taste betrays its presence 
in a universal fondness for fairy tales and kindred literature ; the 
JSsthetio, in a common love for the beautiful, whether in art or 
nature ; while the Ethical is equally manifest in the capacity to 
judge of some forms of human action as right and of others as 
wrong. This view of the nature of mind through its activities 
enables us to infer that our course of study should embrace the 
following lines of instruction: 1. Language; 2. Natural Science ; 
3. Mathematics; 4. History ; 5. ^Esthetics; 6. Ethics. 



478 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

(2.) The Order of Mental Development determines the Order of 
Arrangement of the Various Subjects in each Line of Instruction. 

The mind, in unfolding, begins by using those faculties whose 
office is to accumulate the materials of thought, and gradually 
proceeds by regular steps to successively higher processes. It 
thus begins its work with the concrete, the real, the actual, and in 
due time passes on to a consideration of the abstract, the ideal, 
the speculative. Hence, the mind of the pupil not only determines 
the order of studies, but our methods of presenting them also. 

(3.) Mental Capacity determines the Extent to which any given 
Line of the Course may be carried. 

Pupils who enter school at a very early age seldom accomplish 
as much as they could have done by entering a few years later, 
and remaining in school the same number of years. They reach 
the more abstract studies of the course before the mind is mature 
enough to comprehend them, and the result is great discourage- 
ment to both pupils and teachers. Many a hapless pupil is thus 
considered a dullard for failing to understand what he is really too 
young to understand. Then, the ages at which pupils enter and 
leave school must, to some extent, determine the length of the 
course. Those who enter at five and leave at thirteen accom- 
plish less than those who enter at six and leave at fourteen. Carry 
the limits forward another year, and the difference is still more 
apparent. "We account for these results by the fact that mental 
capacity varies with age. 

2. Objective Limits. 

The objective limits also exercise an important influence in 
determining the extent and character of a course, but they should 
be considered strictly subordinate to the subjective. Time may 
be substituted for capacity, but to a limited extent only. The de- 
mands of practical life for special training may modify, but should 
not supplant, the claims of the pupil to culture in other directions. 
Children possess some natural rights in this regard, which both 
parent and teacher are bound to respect. Of the objective limits 
a few only will be considered. 

(1.) The Average School Life. 



COURSE OF STUDY AND PROGRAMME. 479 

By this is meant the average number of years through which 
membership in school extends. The annual term of school re- 
maining unchanged, the course should be varied as the school life 
varies. Every change in the length of the school life requires a 
corresponding change in the course. 

(2.) The Average Length of the School Term. 

This case is similar to the preceding. When the average term 
is ten months, the course should be more extensive than when that 
average is less. Again, a term of five months is not worth half 
as much as a term of ten months ; for the pupils enter upon the 
second five months of the long term with the skill and habits of 
study acquired during the first five, and thus are able to accom- 
plish greater results in the same length of time. 

(3.) Density of Population. 

The district boundaries are contracted as the density of pop- 
ulation increases. This removes some of the causes of tardiness 
and absence, and economizes the working time of the school. 

(4.) The Number of Pupils that can be conveniently assembled 
in One School. 

This makes a more exact classification possible, and still fur- 
ther economizes time. 

(5.) The Pursuits of a Community. 

Laboring and manufacturing communities usually draw heavily 
upon the time of their children, in this way increasing tardiness 
and absenteeism, and diminishing the practical results of school 
work. Further, the leading industries of a community may, in 
some degree, determine the extent to which particular lines of in- 
struction may be carried. Those which sustain the closest relation 
to the business interests of the people should receive the greatest 
prominence. 

A careful study of these conditioning principles and circum- 
stances, in their various phases, will doubtless enable the student 
to realize the magnitude of the task involved in preparing a good 
course of study for any particular school or system of schools. 
He will, furthermore, see the necessity for revision and readjust- 
ment from year to year, as mistakes are discovered, or the edu- 
cational needs of the community change. The person who 



480 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

undertakes such a work must bear in mind the fact that each case 
furnishes its own conditions. Courses of study can no more be 
run in the same mold than all coats can be cut to the same pat- 
tern. Ready-made courses, like ready-made clothing, seldom fit. 

II. Analysis of a Couese foe Elementaey Schools. 

1. Language. Reading, writing, spelling, etymology, compo- 
sition, grammar. 

(1.) This line embraces a careful training in the correct use 
of language in its spoken and written forms, giving the pupil — 

1st. Ability to speak and write his own thoughts with force 
and elegance ; 

2d. Skill in gathering the thoughts of others from the printed 
or written page ; and, 

3d. Power to give those thoughts intelligent expression in oral 
reading. 

(2.) Instruction begins with carefully conducted lessons on 
familiar objects. The children, as the result of their own obser- 
vation, are first led to give a few simple names, then to print those 
names and to associate the printed form with the spoken word and 
the object which it represents, until any one of these instantly 
suggests either of the others. Second, they are led to frame short 
sentences based on observation of the same objects, using the 
words already learned, to print these sentences on slate or black- 
board, and then to read them. Third, having made some progress 
in this direction, they are next led to realize that spoken words 
are composed of sounds, and that written words are composed of 
letters representing those sounds. Here they begin to spell easy 
words, first by sound and afterward by letter. 

Having reached this stage, every lesson becomes an exercise — 
1st, in the use of the powers of observation ; 2d, in composition 
of sentences; 3d, in writing; 4th, in silent and oral reading; 5th, 
in spelling. 

Thus the work in language should continue, gradually growing 
more comprehensive, and evei*y step reaching the memory through 
the understanding. 



COURSE OF STUDY AND PROGRAMME. 481 

(3.) Definition. Exercises in definition should be regularly 
given in connection with the lesson in reading. For this purpose 
the teacher should select words from the text, requiring pupils to 
judge of the meaning by the connection, and to express it in their 
own language. The practice of requiring pupils to commit defi- 
nitions is pernicious. 

(4.) Composition. The object lesson, having served its purpose 
in introducing the subject of reading, should be continued without 
break, and gradually expanded in the direction of natural science, 
every complete lesson in science being made the basis of a lesson 
in composition. 

These exercises should be continued during the first six years 
of the course, as a means of fixing knowledge and imparting a 
ready command of language. During the latter part of this period 
the leading principles and definitions of English grammar should 
be carefully developed incidentally. If preferred, a text-book on 
" Language Lessons" may be used during the sixth year. 

(5.) Grammar. During the seventh and eighth years of the 
course a text-book on English grammar may be used in connection 
with composition, four lessons in grammar and one lesson in com- 
position being given each week. 

2. Natural Science. Elements of natural history, elements of 
botany, physiology, and hygiene. 

Here the work begins with the simple facts of sense-per- 
ception, and leads up through a series of well-chosen oral lessons 
on plants and animals into physiology, closing with the use of an 
elementary text-book on this subject. (See Language, (4.) Com- 
position.) 

3. Mathematics. Arithmetic, mental and practical. 

(1.) Beginning with the child's intuitive idea of number, this 
line of the course leads onward by means of natural objects vari- 
ously combined, until he grasps in some measure the abstract ideas 
involved, and is able to make the transition from the use of objects 
in his calculations to that of written characters. 

(2.) No text-book should be introduced until about the begin- 
ning of the third year in school. During the first two years the 
oral work should continue in a series of practical exercises, in 
21 



482 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

which the reading and writing of numbers, and the elementary 
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, 
are carefully developed. Every step should be replete with origi- 
nal examples illustrating the inseparable connection of mathe- 
matics with practical life. 

4. History. Geography, United States history, civil govern- 
ment. 

(1.) The object sought in the teaching of history is two-fold : 
First, to place the pupil in possession of a store of useful facts ; 
second, and more important, to enable him to view human action 
from the standpoint of correct morals, thus introducing him to 
the study of man as a rational being. 

(2.) Instruction begins with lessons in place, as position, direc- 
tion, etc., and leads into descriptive geography, which, in treating 
briefly of government, religion, commerce, manufactures, civiliza- 
tion, and the distribution of the human race, forms a fitting intro- 
duction to history, and is inseparably connected with it. 

(3.) The work in history of the United States begins with oral 
lessons, consisting of attractive sketches from American biography 
and selections from primary histories. (For method of presenta- 
tion, see ^Esthetics (5.).) 

(4.) Civil government should be taught orally by the use of 
outlines in connection with history of the United States. 

5. JEsthetics. Lessons in color, drawing, vocal music, free 
gymnastics. 

(1.) Culture in aesthetics is attained in so many ways and 
through so many channels that to specify work seems needless. 
Training should begin in the first grade by cultivating a love for 
the beautiful in nature and whatever is pure and noble in human 
character. Careful attention should be given to good manners, 
neatness of person and habits, neatness of work, and orderly de- 
portment. 

(2.) The lessons in color comprehend a training in the knowl- 
edge of colors, as primary and secondary colors, complementaries, 
shades and tints, laws of harmony, etc. 

(3.) Drawing begins by placing objects representing length in 
various positions, and then representing these positions by lines 



COURSE OF STUDY AND PROGRAMME. 483 

drawn on slate or blackboard. Tbus is developed a knowledge of 
tbe elements of form, which the pupils are led to use in drawing 
symmetrical figures of their own invention. (See Krusi's " Syn- 
thetic Drawing.") 

(4.) Oalisthenic exercises, in their tendency to produce ease 
and grace of movement and gesture, are to be classed as aesthetic 
drills, although introduced with the additional object of promoting 
health. 

(5.) ^Esthetic training in the primary grade also includes a 
course of readings, in which the teacher makes careful selec- 
tions from juvenile works, and spends a few minutes two or 
three times a week in reading to the school. The exercise closes 
with questions by the teacher and oral or written reproductions 
by the pupils, the object being to cultivate a literary taste. 

These exercises are continued through subsequent grades, with 
such variations as are necessary to adapt the training to the age 
and degree of attainment. 

6. Ethics. This line of the course closely resembles the pre- 
ceding. Love of the good bears a striking kinship to love of the 
beautiful, and yet they are not the same. Ethical training in 
public schools, from the nature of the case, must be largely inci- 
dental ; but the spirit of true ethics should pervade every exercise. 
The school training should develop clear perceptions of right and 
wrong; love of truth and justice; cheerful obedience to law ; re- 
spect for the rights of others ; an honest desire to learn duty and 
to discharge it with fidelity. 

III. Exercises. 

1. From the above analysis prepare and tabulate a course for 
a school of eight grades. 

2. From the analysis write out an extended syllabus of a course 
for a school of eight grades. 

IV. Pbogeamme. 

The same influences that led to the origin of the graded school 
combined to produce the programme. It is simply a further step 
toward economy of time and labor. The oldest form is that which 



484 



GRADED SCHOOLS. 



PROGRAMME OF EECITATION AND STUDY. 
Eighth Grade. 



M 


5 CD 

M K 

H £ 

c X 
K H 

HS 

h1^ 


Recitations 
foe 

"A" AND "B." 


Study 

for 

Class "A." 


Study 

foe 

Class " B." 


A. M. 

8.30 
8.55 
9.00 


25 
5 
2 


Assembly and Study. 

Opening Exercises. 

Roll-Call. 


9.02 
9.25 
9.45 
10.00 
10.05 


23 
20 
15 
5 
25 




Mental Arithmetic. 


Mental Arithmetic. 
Physiology (oral). 
Calisthenics. 
Written Arithmetic. 


Written Arithmetic. 










Grammar. 




10.30 


15 


Recess. 


10.45 
11.15 
11.30 


30 
15 
25 


Grammar and Coinp. 


Grammar and Comp. 
Spelling. 




Spelling. 


Spelling. 






11.55 

12.00 
1.00 


5 

60 

2 


Dismission. 

Noon. 
RolltOall. 


1.02 
1.30 
1.55 
2.00 
2.30 


28 
25 
5 
30 
15 


Geography. 
Writing. 
Calisthenics. 
Mental Arithmetic. 
Drawing. 


Mental Arithmetic. 












Written Arithmetic. 








2.45 


10 


Recess. 


2.55 
3.20 
3.40 


25 
20 
20 


Grammar and Comp. 

Reading. 

Written Arithmetic. 




Reading. 


Mental Arithmetic. 
Written Arithmetic. 






4.00 


5 


Dismission. 



Explanations. 

1. A blank in the study column indicates that the c'ass is reciting. 

2. A blank in both study columns indicates that the exercise is general. 

3. Recesses and roll-calls correspond throughout the building. 

4. The time from 8.30 to 8.55 is spent by the teacher in attending to ventilation of 
room and assisting pupils in study. All pupils on the play-ground at 8.30 are required 
to assemble in their rooms for study, and others on arriving proceed at once to study. 

5. Spelling is arranged for one general exercise in writing, or two oral exercises 
with the classes separate, as the circumstances may require. 

6. Grammar four lessons, and composition one lesson, each week. 



COURSE OF STUDY AND PROGRAMME. 435 

simply prescribes the order of exercises, leaving the time and dura- 
tion of each to be decided by circumstances and the will of the 
teacher. A second form prescribes the order and exact time of 
the several exercises, and a third goes still further and lays down 
an order of study to be observed by the pupils during the scbool 
day. This last is its latest and best phase. 

Definition. — A programme is a tabulated arrangement of the 
daily order of business, showing the nature, time of beginning and 
ending, of each exercise. 

1. Value of a Programme. The object of a programme has 
already been indicated. Present economy of time and labor, 
however, is not the only end to be attained by the use of a pro- 
gramme. The formation of methodical habits on the part of the 
pupil is quite as important, and looks toward untold economy in 
the future. Herein is one of the most substantia] advantages to 
be realized from a good programme. Again, the study programme 
aids in counteracting the tendency to devote too much time to 
favorite subjects. 

2. Objections Answered. Some object to the study programme 
on the ground that the pupil may desire to study arithmetic when 
the programme prescribes grammar, or the reverse. Such objec- 
tions are not valid; for the pupil may desire to play instead of 
doing either, and what teacher would hesitate to say he should 
study ? One aim of education is to bring the will under control 
of the reason, and the elementary school should contribute no small 
share to this result. A fair trial usually disposes of all objections 
to the use of a programme. The mind is so flexible that it readily 
adapts itself to the circumstances, and soon performs with auto- 
matic ease what at first requires constant effort. 

3. Construction of a Programme. The programme, like the 
course of study, has a definite place in the economy of the school, 
and its construction is subject to fixed principles, a few of which 
are the following : 

(1.) A programme should always afford the greatest possible 
economy of time for both teacher and pupil. 

(2.) It should afford a proper alternation of study and recita- 
tion. 



486 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

(3.) It should make a proper distribution of the time for rest 
and exercise. 

(4.) It should provide a time for rendering assistance to pupils. 

(5.) It should distribute the difficult subjects. 

(6.) General recesses should coincide in all the grades. 

(7.) Intermediate rests and calisthenic exercises should be ar- 
ranged to suit the grade for which they are intended. 

(8.) Dismission should follow the order of grades, beginning 
with the lowest, which should be dismissed at least thirty min- 
utes earlier than the advanced grammar grade. 



CHAPTER V. 

GRADES AND GRADING. 

I. Grades. — The student has already learned that, for the 
purposes of classification, courses of study intended for city schools 
are generally divided into a short series of progressive steps called 
grades, and that schools organized in accordance with such a 
course are called graded schools. 

1. Division of Course into Grades. The past history of graded 
schools reveals no settled principle for determining the number of 
grades into which a course of study should be divided. In many 
cases convenience seems to have been the only guide, the number 
of grades in different cities varying too much to be accounted for 
by differences in length of school life. For example : Kansas City, 
Missouri, has seven grades; Chicago, Illinois, eight; Brooklyn, 
New York, twelve. 

2. Methods of Determining Grades. The present tendency is 
toward a fixed method of determining grades. In all cities having 
well-organized systems of schools, careful attention is paid to tho 
collection of statistics. A comparison of those collected during a 
series of years determines — 

1st. The average length of the school attendance ; and, 
2d. The average amount of work done in a year by a pupil of 
any given age. 



GRADES AND GRADING. 487 

These data are made the basis of calculation in fixing both the 
extent of the course in years, and the number of grades in the 
course. 

3. Number of Grades. Hence, the course of study for the ele- 
mentary schools is arranged for the number of years indicated 
by the average school life, and each year's work constitutes a 
grade. By this method the number of grades always corresponds 
to the number of years in the course. A school, whose pupils 
attend an average of seven years each, should have a seven-years' 
course, which should be divided into seven grades. As this aver- 
age changes, the length of course and the number of grades should 
be correspondingly changed. Whatever of public-school work is 
done beyond this properly belongs to the High School. 

4. Comparison of Grades. The above scheme for determining 
grades contemplates their equality as to time only, each grade 
prescribing the work for a given year. A comparison of one with 
another reveals the fact that each successive grade is more com- 
prehensive than the preceding, thus answering to the ever-increas- 
ing experience and working capacity of the pupil. 

5. Grades Defined. In common use the term Grade is equiv- 
ocal, being used at will to indicate either a division of the course, 
or a division of the school. When applied to the former, it indi- 
cates such a part of the course as has been prescribed for comple- 
tion in any given year ; when applied to the latter, it includes 
all pupils assigned to a specific year's work. 

II. Grading.— Grading and classification are very closely allied 
to each other. The preliminary step in both is examination, and 
the object of both is to determine the pupil's true position in 
school. The chief factor in grading is the pupil's relative knowl- 
edge of the several parts of subjects embraced in any given grade ; 
the chief factor in classification is his actual knowledge of a single 
study, or of several studies considered separately. Grading deter- 
mines position in the established course ; classification determines 
position in each study of the grade. 

Definition.— Grading, then, may be called that species of 
classification by which the pupils of a school are separated into 
the general divisions prescribed by a graded course of study. 



488 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

1. Organization of Grades. Each grade of a school should be 
organized to suit the age and work of the pupils composing it. 

(1.) The First Grade should be separated into three or four 
divisions or classes, depending on the exactness of the grading ; 
and the several divisions should recite alternately if possible. This 
method of organization has many advantages. It is especially 
adapted to the frequent promotions necessary from this grade. 
The classes are smaller and more easily managed. The recitations 
are short and frequent, and, therefore, better suited to both physi- 
cal and mental strength of the pupils. In this grade no recitation 
should exceed fifteen minutes ; many of them should not occupy 
more than six or eight minutes each. 

(2.) The Second Grade should form about three divisions, for 
reasons similar to those given above. In general the recitations 
in this grade should not exceed twenty minutes each, and in most 
cases the time should not be over fifteen minutes. 

(3.) All other grades should constitute but two divisions each. 
Divisions should recite alternately, and recitations should vary to 
suit the subject, the allotted time ranging from twenty to thirty 
minutes. 

2. Basis for Grading. Owing to the irregular advancement 
of many who apply for admission to graded schools, it is necessary 
to select one or two studies as the basis for grading, and rely on 
skillful instruction afterward to bring up those subjects in which 
pupils may be slightly below the required standard. Especially is 
this the case at the first organization of a school. In the first and 
second grades, reading may be made the basis ; in the third, fourth, 
fifth, and sixth, arithmetic and reading; in the seventh and eighth, 
arithmetic and grammar. Those subjects which are most impor- 
tant in the grade, and which are likely to offer the greatest obsta- 
cles to the progress of the pupil, thus exercise the chief influence 
in determining his grade. Age, capacity, and opportunities for 
home study must also be carefully considered. 

3. The Proper Person to Grade. (1.) In a few small cities, 
not employing a superintendent, the secretary or some other 
member of the Board of Education is empowered to do the grad- 
ing, but the plan is not satisfactory. Such duties should be 



GRADES AND GRADING. 489 

intrusted to a skilled teacher, who sustains an actual working 
relation to the schools and exercises a constant oversight. 

(2.) In towns and small cities, having but one or two schools, 
the principal or supervising principal, as the case may be, is the 
proper person to do the grading. 

(3.) Cities of 15,000 to 25,000 inhabitants usually employ a 
superintendent, who attends to this duty in person. 

(4.) In large cities the principals grade, under direction of the 
superintendent, their work being subject to the inspection and 
approval of that officer or his assistant. 

III. How to Gkade a School. — In discussing this subject an 
unorganized school of eight grades will be selected. It will be 
assumed that everything is in readiness for work, and that the 
principal has been at Lis post for several days, and has gained all 
the information necessary to enable him to proceed intelligently 
with the organization. 

1. Duties of Principal — Preliminary Work. 

(1.) Meeting of Teachers. Previous to the opening of school 
the principal should call a meeting of the teachers, at which the 
following items of business should be transacted: 

1st. Explanation of Records. He shoidd explain the manner 
of keeping the records — methods of recording attendance, ab- 
sence, tardiness, truancy, entries, dismissions, suspensions, sick- 
ness, excuses, deportment, recitations, etc. 

2d. Syllabus of Grade. He should furnish each assistant with 
a syllabus, of the work required in her grade. 

3d. Exposition of Rules. He should give a clear exposition of 
the rules to be enforced in the general management of the school. 

4th. Programme of Organization. He should present a pro- 
gramme of exercises for the organization, assigning to each assist- 
ant definite work. 

(2.) Examination. On a convenient day during the week pre- 
ceding the opening of school, the principal, with the aid of his 
assistants, should hold an examination for admission to the sixth, 
seventh, and eighth grades. This examination should combine 
oral and written exercises, and should be conducted in such a 



490 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

manner as to test the pupil's general knowledge of the grade nest 
below that which he wishes to enter. At the close a tabulated 
summary should be prepared showing the name and age of each 
pupil, the several standings attained, and any notes taken by prin- 
cipal or assistant at the time of examination. From the data thus 
obtained the principal can readily determine the grade to which 
each applicant belongs, and on the morning of the opening all may 
be assigned to their proper rooms in a few minutes. 

Remark. — At the first organization of a graded school, this 
preliminary examination is very important, and even after a school 
is well established it should be held for the purpose of determining 
the grade of such as may for the first time seek admission. It is 
a means of preventing much confusion and delay at the opening. 

2. Duties of Principal — Organization. 

On the morning of the opening all teachers should be present 
in time to receive the pupils, and work should begin early. 

(1.) Temporary Grading. The first duty of the principal is 
to make a rough-cast of all the grades. This may be quickly done 
by taking reading as a basis, and ascertaining what Eeader each 
pupil has, and how much of the book he has previously studied. 
Great care should be taken to make this as near the proper grading 
as possible, and the aim should be to grade too low rather than too 
high. The temporary grading being completed, each assistaut 
should be assigned to the conducting of trial recitations. 

(2.) During the progress of these recitations, the principal 
should make a temporary organization of his own grade (if he has 
one to teach), assign work for the next day, and dismiss. 

(3.) Permanent Grading. Having disposed of his own pupils 
for the day, the principal should at once commence the perma- 
nent organization of the remaining grades, beginning with the 
lowest, and giving his first attention to those whom the trial reci- 
tations show to be either above or below the required standard. 
In this work he should be guided by the principles given in II., 
2. Basis for Grading. 

A short oral examination, taken in connection with the notes 
made by the assistant during the recitation, will generally enable 



GRADES AND GRADING. 491 

him to determine the proper grade of each pupil without delay. 
Those who prove to be clearly ready for a higher grade should be 
promoted, and doubtful cases should be retained for further trial. 
After passing the first grade, all who are found to be below the 
required standard should be dropped back to the proper place. In 
this way all the grades should be corrected the first day if possible. 

Remark. — The permanent grading begins with the first grade 
for the reason that the scholarship of pupils in the lower grades 
can be much more easily tested. A skillful principal would finish 
the permanent grading of several primary rooms while waiting 
for reports from the more advanced grades. 

(4.) ^Revision. On the second day the principal should revise 
the work of the preceding day in the other grades, make a perma- 
nent organization of his own classes, and give his assistants any 
necessary aid in the permanent organization of their respective 
grades. 

(5.) Visitation. After the permanent organization, each room 
should be visited daily, and mistakes in classification should be 
corrected as soon as discovered. 

(6.) New Pupils. All pupils entering after the first day should 
be examined by the principal, and assigned to the proper grade. 
Grading should not be left to assistants. 

(7.) Promotions. Promotions by classes should be made annu- 
ally, but individual promotions should be made once a month if 
necessary. 

The best fruits of the graded school can be realized only in a 
close classification, which is the result of frequent discriminating 
promotions. The principal should be constantly upon the alert, 
and pupils found to be in advance of their classes should be 
promptly promoted unless there should be physical or other good 
causes to prevent it. Those who after proper encouragement 
and assistance by the teacher fall behind, should be reclassed to 
suit their capacities or opportunities. 

8. Duties of Assistants — Organization. 
(1.) The assistant teachers should aid the principal in forming 
the temporary organization of the grades ; and as soon as this is 



492 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

effected, they should commence the trial recitations referred to 
helow. 

(2.) Trial Recitations. The object of trial recitations is to 
ascertain what the pupils know, and also to test their working 
qualities. To accomplish tjiis with least delay, the teacher 
should, 

1st. Separate the pupils into Divisions, as indicated in II. , 1. 
Organization of Grades. 

2d. Prepare an alphabetical roll of each division, leaving 
space after every name for age, standings, and remarks. 

3d. Assign subjects for study and begin recitations, hearing 
the divisions alternately, carefully estimating and recording the 
work done by each pupil. 

(3.) Classification. These recitations are conducted mainly 
for the purpose of assisting the principal in correcting the tem- 
porary organization, but during their progress an experienced 
teacher will also gather most of the data required in the final class- 
ification of her grade. The permanent classification should be 
made as soon as the grades are established. 

Geneeal Remaeks. — It must be borne in mind that pupils of 
the same grade are not necessarily equal in scholastic attainments. 
"While some are barely able to enter the grade, others may have 
completed the first half, or more. In these differences we find 
very important reasons for separating grades into divisions. In 
the intermediate grades both divisions commence at very nearly 
the same point, but the advanced division reviews rapidly the 
work previously gone over, while the elementary proceeds slowly 
from the beginning. This method of organization makes the step 
between consecutive divisions of the same grade, or of adjacent 
grades, comparatively short, so that a bright pupil who is behind 
in only one or two studies can readily do the extra work required 
by a reclassification. In the lower grades, where frequent reclassi- 
fications are rendered necessary by the circumstances, there is a 
greater number of divisions in a grade, and the steps between are 
consequently much shorter. The organization thus conforms to 
the actual wants of the school, and furnishes a perpetual incentive 
to higher effort. 



EXAMINATIONS, RECORDS, AND REPORTS. 493 

The above is intended as an ontline of the method of organ- 
izing a new school. The grades being once properly established, 
future organizations are quite easy. The records show the entire 
classification. The principal has only to make a few necessary 
corrections, see that every pupil is jn his proper place, and grade 
such as enter the school for the first time. 



CHAPTER VI. 

EXAMINATIONS, RECOEDS, AND EEPOETS. 

I. Examinations. — The examination in graded, as in other 
schools, has its proper objects and natural limits. It was not in- 
stituted to obtain percents merely, but ratber to bring out those 
higher results of thought and action which no arbitrary marks can 
truly express. It is a means, not an end. Hence the teacher 
should ever bear in mind that the examination exists for the 
school, and not the school for the examination. 

1. The Objects of Examinations. Some of the objects of ex- 
aminations are the following : 

1st. To ascertain the extent of the pupil's knowledge and thus 
determine where instruction should begin. 

2d. To awaken greater interest in study, leading to frequent 
reviews, more accurate observation, habits of thinking, classifica- 
tion of knowledge. 

3d. To train the pupil in the use of knowledge, thereby fixing 
it in the mind more firmly. 

4th. To obtain the necessary data for reports and records, 
grading and classification. 

2. Forms of Examination. There are two leading forms of 
examination — the oral and the written. Each of these may be 
subdivided into several varieties corresponding to different meth- 
ods of recitation ; as, Interrogative, Topical, etc. Each form and 
method has its special advantages. In deciding which should be 
adopted in any given case, the examiner must be guided by the 



494 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

circumstances Of these the most important are the age and pre- 
vious training. In all grades both the form and method of exam- 
ination should be frequently varied. 

The oral examination affords the readiest means of determining 
the extent of the pupil's knowledge. For this and other reasons, 
oral methods should receive greater prominence in primary grades. 

The written examination determines the accuracy rather than 
the extent of a pupil's knowledge. It fosters a careful study of the 
forms of expression, increases the intensity of thought, and thus 
becomes one of the most efficient means of impressing knowledge. 

3. The Proper Time for Examinations. As a rule examina- 
tions should not be held at fixed times. Such examinations usu- 
ally defeat their true object by inducing the worst forms of cram- 
ming. Reviews should be systematically maintained in all grades, 
and brief examinations should be held when least expected by the 
pupils. In this way their actual knowledge will be obtained and 
not the fictitious results of spasmodic efforts at memorizing. 

4. Frequency of Examinations. Oral reviews for the purpose 
of marking should be held about once a week, and brief written 
reviews for the same purpose about twice each month. None of 
these exercises should be formal ; formality defeats the real ob- 
ject. The work should be spontaneous, free, and quickly done, 
representing the best off-hand effort of each member of the class. 

5. Methods of Conducting Examinations. The value of exam- 
inations as an educational instrumentality is largely dependent on 
the methods adopted in conducting them. The best results are 
obtained by varying the method from time to time. 

(1.) Principles of Questioning. Loosely constructed questions 
may prove fatal to the efficiency of an examination. No teacher 
should trust to the inspiration of the moment. Questions should 
be carefully prepared in advance. The following general princi- 
ples may prove valuable in the work of preparation : 

1st. Questions should be so framed as to leave the pupil entire- 
ly to his own resources in answering. 

2d. The degree of difficulty should be adapted to the capacity 
of the pupils and their opportunities of knowing. 

3d. The questions should test the pupil's knowledge in such a 



EXAMINATIONS, RECORDS, AND REPORTS. 



495 



manner as to impress it, and, at the same time, excite original 
thought. 

4th. They should be clear, concise, and pointed. 

The following should be avoided : 

1st. All questions which can be answered in monosyllables. 

2d. Such as contain an intimation of tbe answer desired. 

3d. Such as contain an idea in contrast with the answer. 

4th. Such as admit a choice of answers. 

5th. Such as logically force a correct answer. 

(2.) Oral Methods. In conducting oral examinations, pupils 
should not be questioned alphabetically nor in any other fixed 
order. That method of marking should be adopted which enables 
the teacher to make a satisfactory record with the least attention 
possible. All cumbersome methods should be shunned. The 
teacher's mind must not be absorbed in the marking. 

The following method of marking has proved highly successful. 
A grade card is prepared for each pupil, and all the cards belong- 
ing to a division are kept in one package. To examine a division, 
the teacher selects the proper package, and begins with the pupil 
whose card is on top. He examines this pupil until satisfied, 
makes a mark in the proper square, and places the card on the 
back of the package. The examination thus continues, the teacher 
always calling the pupil whose card comes next in order. 

In this way all the members of a large division may be graded 
several times during a recitation period. 

GEADE OABD. 



Division 


























Studies. 


10 


9 


7 


5 


3 





AVERAGE 
I GRADE. 


Beading. 


© © 


© © © 


© 




© 




80 


Geography. 


© © © 


© © 


© © 




© © 


© 


68 


Arithmetic. 


© © 


© 


G © 


© 




© © 


60 

1 



496 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

EXPLANATION. 

1. The number at the head of a column indicates the value of each 
credit in that column. 

2. The squares opposite each study should be large enough for re- 
cording the oral examinations during at least one month. 

3. In recording a grade the teacher has only to make a dot or some 
other small mark in the proper square under the figures indicating the 
desired number of credits. On this card a period is used for the purpose. 

4. To determine the average grade in any study, multiply the number 
at the head of each column by the number of credits in the proper square 
below, and divide the sum of the products with one cipher annexed by 
the total number of credits. The result will be the grade on a scale of 
100. 

(3.) Written Methods. In conducting written examinations in 
all grades above the primary, it is best to examine both divisions 
at the same time and take two recitation periods for the work. A 
separate list of questions should be prepared for eacli division. 
During the examination no two members of the same division 
should be seated together. The teacher should read a question to 
each division, giving the pupils time to copy and number it prop- 
erly. A specified time should be allotted for giving the answer, 
and at the close of this period all should cease writing. Another 
question should then be read, and the time allotted as before, and 
so on till the close of the examination. The time allowed for 
each question should be such that the unskillful writer who under- 
stands the subject will be able to prepare his answer. More time 
than this should not be given. An examination is designed to 
draw out the pupil's ready knowledge, not what he can recall only 
by hours of labored thought. All the papers should be neatly 
folded, labeled, and on the teacher's desk before the stroke of the 
bell for a change of classes. Prompt observance of these require- 
ments should be enforced. 

The advantages of this method are many. 

1. It insures a proper amount of work on each question or topic 
given, and prevents waste of time by dwelling too long on difficult ques- 
tions. 



EXAMINATIONS, RECORDS, AND REPORTS. 497 

2. It requires prompt action, and impresses the necessity of frequent 
reviews. 

3. It affords no time for obtaining assistance from classmates, and 
thus encourages original effort. 

4. The teacher's time is not absorbed in writing the questions on the 
blackboard, and can be more effectively employed in securing honest 
work. 

5. The examinations are short and far less laborious to both teacher 
and pupils. 

Remark. — The introduction of this method is sometimes at- 
tended with a little difficulty, but, after two or three test efforts, 
the work usually proceeds with remarkable smoothness. 

II. Records. — It has already been shown that records sustain 
an importaut relation to the management of graded schools. In 
fact, they are essential to the intelligent management of any 
school or system of schools. They give a school permanent 
form, and render it possible to build each year upon the results 
of the preceding year. "Well-kept records aid the assistant in 
classification, the principal in grading, the superintendent in pre- 
scribing proper work, the board of education in determining the 
wants of the school. They stand in the same relation to enlight- 
ened school management, that the invoice, the sales book, the cash 
book, the journal, and the ledger do to successful merchandising. 

What the records of a school should be depends to some ex- 
tent upon circumstances. A large city with an extensive system 
of schools generally requires a much more elaborate system of 
records than is needed in small cities and towns. Cities whose 
enrollment does not exceed three or four thousand pupils rarely 
require more than the annual register, the percentage book, the 
attendance register, and the class register. 

1. Annual Register. This book answers the purpose of a gen- 
eral ledger for the school. It is kept by the principal, and should 
be properly ruled for recording the following and suoh other items 
as may be desired : Number, name, age, and date of admission of 
each pupil ; the name, residence, and occupation of the parent or 
guardian ; a general summary of the pupil's attendance for each 
quarter, and a column for remarks. 



498 GRADED SCHOOLS. 

When pupils apply for admission the principal enrolls their 
names in this book, and numbers them, following the order of ap- 
plication. As many of the blanks as possible are then filled, and 
the pupils are assigned to their several grades. At the close of 
each quarter the attendance is also recorded. 

2. Percentage Boole. This record is also kept by the principal. 
In it he records a general summai-y of each day's attendance of the 
entire school. This summary is made up from reports furnished 
by the assistants at the close of school every evening. It should 
embrace (1) the number of original entries, (2) the number of 
withdrawals, (3) the total enrollment, (4) the present member- 
ship (number belonging), (5) the number present, (6) the num- 
ber absent, (7) the number of cases of tardiness. With these 
items before him, the principal is prepared at any time to make 
out in a few minutes all the percentages usually required in re- 
ports to school officers. 

3. Attendance Register. Each assistant in charge of a school 
room keeps an attendance register. In this book she should re- 
cord the name, number, division, and date of admission of each 
pupil assigned to her cave. This constitutes the roll, which 
should be called regularly at the opening of each half-day ses- 
sion. The rulings of this record should exhibit a quarter's work 
on each double page. 

(1.) System of Marling. Most attendance registers present a 
plan of keeping the record. Whatever scheme is adopted, should 
present a perfect exhibit of all the information desired, and should 
be easily understood. The entries should always show date of 
admission, date of leaving, days present, days absent, times tardy, 
and deportment of the pupil, together with excuses for absence, 
tardiness, etc. 

4. Class Register. The object of the class register is to pre- 
serve a perfect record of the school work done by each pupil. 
The ruling of this book should be similar to that of the attend- 
ance register. 

(1.) Method of Using. The names of pupils should be enrolled 
by classes in alphabetical order. All absences from recitation 
should be recorded ; presence should be indicated by a blank, in 



EXAMINATIONS, RECORDS, AND REPORTS. 499 

which may be written the grade of the recitation when desired. 
All grades should he recorded in this hook, the oral being care- 
fully distinguished from the written work. 

III. Reports. — A school accomplishes most, when it receives 
the full confidence and support of the community in which it is 
located. This confidence can not be realized by any school as 
long as the people remain ignorant of its aims and work. Direc- 
tors can not intelligently provide for wants which they but imper- 
fectly comprehend, nor can the people be expected to sustain with 
cordiality a management which they do not clearly understand. 
Hence, reports are important auxiliaries to school management. 

The general subject of reports has already been discussed in 
Part VII. , Chapter III. It will here be considered briefly from 
the standpoint of the graded school. 

1. Report to Board of Education. This report has a double pur- 
pose. The primary object is to lay before the proper authorities 
in the most intelligible form all the information necessary to guide 
them in the discharge of official duty. Further than this, the 
report should be such as to command the attention of the com- 
munity at large and improve the educational sentiment. 

It should embrace, 

1st. All the statistical information required by law. 

2d. A comparison of statistics, from which may be derived 
valuable information in regard to the school. 

3d. Suggestions and recommendations in reference to desired 
improvements. 

4th. Items of general interest to the public; such as history, 
growth, and progress; organization, management, etc. 

Remark. — The city superintendent is the proper person to 
prepare this report. It is largely compiled from reports submitted 
to him by the several principals, hut usually contains much that 
is the result of his personal observation and experience. When 
no superintendent is employed, it becomes the duty of the princi- 
pal to make this report. It is properly addressed to the president 
of the board, but should be delivered to the secretary. 

2. Reports to Parents. By reports to parents is meant a sep- 
arate report of the standing of each pupil furnished to the parent 



500 GEADED SCHOOLS. 

or guardian. The object is to give full information in regard to 
the attendance, deportment, and progress of pupils, thus stimu- 
lating them to increased efforts and enlisting the cooperation of 
parents. The report should be expressed in the simplest form 
possible, to convey full and satisfactory information. 

These reports are prepared from the attendance and class reg- 
isters at stated periods, usually at the close of each month, and 
sent to parents. Great energy and tact are required to make 
this plan of reporting successful, but, when properly managed, it 
exercises a potent influence in securing better attendance, deport- 
ment, and study. 

NEEDED REFORMS. 

The ideal has not yet been reached in the management ot 
graded schools. This is especially true of graded schools in the 
smaller towns. In many of them principals are changed annually, 
and sometimes oftener. Very little progress is made toward a 
proper grading and classification. Permanent records are rarely 
kept, and reports are of the most meager and unsatisfactory kind. 
Directors are left to " guess " at the wants of the school, and citi- 
zens rarely speak of it save to criticise. "What is needed, is a 
revival among principals and teachers — an infusion of new life 
which will bring order out of chaos. Directors and people must 
be kept fully informed as to the condition and wants of the 
schools. Grading and classification must receive proper attention. 
Every principal should leave behind him complete records for the 
guidance of his successor. Thus equipped, any principal of aver- 
age intelligence will be able to take up and continue the work ox 
the preceding term without needless repetition. Teachers, the 
reform must begin with you. 



INDEX. 



Ability, 16, 429, 449. 
Abuse of text-books, 59. 445. 
Action and culture, 310. 
Action world, 209, 234, 241. 
Adjustment, 102, 213, 421, 440. 
Adoption of regulations, 141. 
Adoption of text-books, 60. 
Advantages of country schools, 235. 
Advantages of school grounds, 25. 
Advocates, corporal punishment, 178. 
^Esthetics, 209, 221, 241. 
Alternation plan, recitations, 261. 
Amusements versus study, 298. 
Analysis course, 233, 480. 
Antiquated methods, 345. 
Antiquated programmes, 264. 
Apparatus, 37, 42, 46, 47, 86, 87, 472. 
Architects, school, 28. 
Arithmetic, 44, 239, 248. 
Art of preserving health, 63, 70, 74. 
Art of questioning, 347. 
Art of school management, 4, 6, 15, 339. 
Art of securing attention, 299. 
Art of teaching, 4, 5, 389. 
Assigning lessons, 323. 
Attention, 28S,*299. 
Auxiliary methods, 341. 

Balanced culture, 73. 

Bathing, 68, 71. 

Beauty, architecture, 32. 

Beauty, Kindergarten, 49. 

Beauty world, 209, 233, 241. 

Be self-possessed, 115. 

Bible reading, 110. 

Biology, 207. 

Blackboards, 42, 96, 474. 

Board tactics, 96. 

Board of education, 142, 467, 470. 

Books, 6, 53, 59, 87. 

Botanical specimens, 45. 

Cabinet, 45. 

Calisthenic exercises, 66, 310. 

Catalogues, 374. 

Causes for suspension, 167. 

Cautions, 53, 63, 129, 295. 297, 861. 

Certificates, 398. 

Chair of didactics, 391. 

Characteristics of text-books, 57. 

Cheerfulness, 69. 

Chemical apparatus. 46. 

Child mind, 380. 

Choice of books, 53. 

Circle of science, 205, 213, 227, 230. 

Classes of teachers, 390. 



Classification, 100, 105, 492. 

Classified scheme of knowledge, 226. 

Class management, 93, 323. 

Class methods, 331. 

Class work, 326. 

Cleanliness, 68. 

Cloak rooms, 37. 

Clothing, 63. 

Co-education, 44S. 

College, 129, 224. 

College, school, and university, 224. 

Color of boards, 42. 

Combined recitations, 25G. 

Coming teachers, 408. 

Commission plan, 422. 

Communication, 140, 148, 184. 

Concert method, 9S, 343. 

Conditions of educational progress, 346, 

424. 
Conditions of order, 192. 
Conditions of study, 33, 291. 
Conditions of success, 305, 352. 
Conductor of institutes, 402. 
Confidence, 130. 

Conscience, 151, 157, 446, 453, 457. 
Contract with school board, 85. 
Conversation method, 337. 
Corporal punishment, 174. 
Cosmology, 207. 
Cost of apparatus, 46. 
Cost of school buildings, 39. 
Country schools, 235. 
Course of study for high schools, 276. 
Course of study for normal institutes, 396. 
Courses of study, 205, 213. 227, 230, 476. 
Cowardly punishments, 170. 
Cramming, 311. 
Crayon, 43. 

Criteria for marking, 364. 
Criticism, 248. 
Cultivate attention, 304, 
Culture, 131, 331. 
Cut of grounds and building, 23, 30, 34. 

Decorum, 140. 

Degrading punishments, 170. 
Deportment marks, 164. 
Desks and seats, 88. 
Diagrams, 296, 341. 
Dignity, 113. 
Diplomas, 23S, 373, 398. 
Discussion, 336. 
Dismissing classes, 95. 
Dismissing school, 93. 
Disorderly schools, 186. 
Disorderly teachers, 186. 



502 



INDEX. 



District school library, 53. 

Division of labor, 464. 

Divisions, ungraded schools, 257. 

Doubtful punishment, 1(35. 

Dull pupils, 188. 

Duties of parents, 199. 

Duties of pupils, 196. 

Duties of school boards, 200. 

Duties of teachers, 193, 491. 

Duties of county superintendents, 435. 

Duty, 145, 150, 193. 

Duty world, 134, 141, 209. 

Earnest words, health, 75. 
Educational artist, 411. 
Educational evolution, 463. 
Educational ideals, 427. 
Educational instrumentalities, 21. 
Educational platform, 428. 
Educational progress, 424, 463. 
Educational waste, 196, 441. 
Education defined, 313. 
Elementary psychology, 4, C, 380, 3S8, 

400, 476. 
Elementary school course, 230, 476. 
Elements of governing power, 124. 
Energy, 125. 

Enforcement of regulations, 142, 141. 
Engine, 70, 125. 
Erasers, 43. 

Erroneous methods, 345. 
Errors, 314. 

Examinations, 359, 363, 4S5, 493. 
Examining committee, 373, 398. 
Expulsion, 1G9. 
Eye culture, 309. 

Fault-finding, 127. 

First day of school, 88, 114, 118. 

Flowers in the school-room, 24, 88. 

Follow your plan, 114. 

Food, 68, 70, 75. 

Force, its place, 331. 

Fuel rooms, 37. 

Fundamental educational principles, 31G. 

General class methods, 831. 
General course of study, 214, 225. 
General educational principles, 816. 
General school regulations, 139. 
Geographical apparatus, 44. 
Geography, 44, 239, 249. 
Geological specimens, 45. 
Gilchrist programme, 266. 
Glad memory, 25. 
Golden hints to teachers, 851. 
Governing forces, 157. 
Governing power, 123. 
Governing through the class, 186. 
Government by seating, 112. 
Government defined, 122. 
Graded schools, 463, 466. 
Graded school system, 467. 
Grades and grading, 483, 436. 



Graduation, 363, 371. 
Ground plan of building, 33. 
Grouping country schools, 237, 465. 

Habits, 147, 149, 150. 

Hand and eye culture, 3C9. 

Hand culture, 299. 

Hand tactics, 97. 

Hard cases, 1S9. 

Hard study, 298. 

Health, teacher, 82. 

Heart power, 132. 

Heating school buildings, 35. 

Helps in study, 295. 

Higher educational ideals, 427. 

High school, 274, 470. 

Hints to school boards, 39. 

Hints to teachers, 120, 351. 

History, 210, 221, 241, 252. 

History of school architecture, 27. 

Hours in school day, 256. 

How shall I teach ? 238. 

How to keep well, 70. 

How to mark, 365. 

How to procure apparatus, 46. 

How to study, 293. 

Human culture, 388. 

Hygienic habits, 63. 

Hygienic position, 63. 

Hygienic punishments, 69. 

Ideal programme for ungraded schools, 

158, 256, 268. 
Improving school grounds, 25. 
Incentives to study, 306. 
Incompetent teachers, 382. 
Infliction of punishment, 176. 
Injudicious punishments, 170. 
Inorganic world, 206, 232, 239. 
Institute classes, 395. 
Instrumentalities, 21. 42. 
Intellectual forces, 157. 
Interest, 144. 

Keeping after s-hool, 163, 172. 
Kindergarten gifts, 49. 
Kindergarten in elementary schools, 50. 
Kindergarten methods. 51. 
Knowledge, mental food, 313. 

Laws of health, 63,72. 

Laws of teaching, 351. 

Laws relating to corporal punishment, 174. 

Lecture method, 339, 401. 

Length of examinations, 362. 

Length of recitations, 328. 

Lessons, 326. 

Library and apparatus room, 37. 

Light, 36, 66. 

Liquid slating, 42. 

Liquor traffic, 71, 426. 

Location of grounds, 22. 

Logic, 208. 

Longevity, 72. 

Love and health, 78. 



INDEX. 



503 



Management, 134, 145, 247, 253. 

Manners and morals, 132, 140, 2S0. 

Marking grades, 1 64, 363. 

Materials for blackboards, 42. 

Mathematical apparatus, 44. 

Mathematics, 206, 232, 23S, 481. 

Matter and method, 399. 

Methods of adopting regulations, 142. 

Methods of seating, 112. 

Methods with professional classes, 26. 

Metric weights and measures, 44, 454. 

Michigan programme, 271. 

Missing link, 283. 

Mission of the teacher, 414. 

Mistakes, 362. 

Model school, 119, 338, 353. 

Money saved, 446, 453, 457. 

Morality, 140, 149, 157, 314. 

Nagging, 171. 

Napoleon's rule, government, 125, 255. 

Never use tobacco, 74, 426. 

New and old education, 4, 25, SOS. 

New Kindergarten gifts, 51. 

New York programme, 272. 

Normal institutes, 14, 52, 393, 403. 

Normal schools, 14, 52, 3S3, 391, 392, 403. 

Objective points in education, 313. 

Objective teaching, 59, 296. 

Objects of class work, 327. 

Objects of examination, 360. 

Objects of marking, 364. 

Old and new education, 308, 425. 

Opening exercises, 110. 

Opponents of corporal punishment, 180. 

Oral teaching, 59, 263, 267, 332. 

Order of presenting truth, 318, 477. 

Organic world, 207, 232, 239. 

Organization, SI, 469, 470, 490. 

Originality, 16. 

Out-buildings, 37. 

Outline method, 296, 341. 

Parrot work, 311. 

Perfection of school systems, 421. 

Periods, educational, 218, 229, 477. 

Phelps programme, 26S. 

Philosophy, 208. 

Physical conditions of educational prog 

ress, 278, 291, 425. 
Pictures in school-rooms, 38. 
Place for diagrams, 341. 
Plan for country school-houses, S3. 
Plan for school library, 56. 
Plan of buildings, 32. 
Plan of campaign, 87. 
Plan of grounds, 22. 
Play and education, 50, 67, 299, 3C8. 
Play and health, 67, 308. 
Playgrounds, 24. 
Pleasure and work, 808. 
Pledge, 141. 
Power, 123, 12S, 133, 135. 



Preparation of lessons, 331, 351. 
Preserving grounds, 25. 
Principal and assistants, 468, 475, 4S9. 
Professional classes, 26, 40, 110, 379. 
Professional course in normal schools, 888. 
Programme for normal institutes, 397. 
Programme for study, 292. 
Programmes, 87, 255, 478, 483. 
Programmes for ungraded schools, 255. 
Promoting health, 74. 
Promotion, 84, 863. 
Promptitude, 140, 145. 
Principles : 

Kelating to school tactics, 90. 

Relating to classification, 100. 

Relating to school regulations, 187. 

Relating to school punishments, 155. 

Relating to course of study, 213. 

Relating to school programmes, 255. 

Relating to the order of presenting 
truth, 318. 

Relating to theprocesses in teaching, 31 8. 

Relating to courses of study and meth- 
ods, 819, 476. 

Relating to class management, 324. 

Relating to the art of questioning, 348. 

Fundamental principles, 316. 

General principles, 317. 

Psychological principles, 317. 

"Vital educational principles, 419. 
Privation, 162. 
Privies, 37, 40. 

Psychological basis, 218, 229, 475. 
Psychological principles, 317. 
Psychology, 4, 5, 208, 3S0, 888, 400. 
Punishment, 69, 132, 145, 147, 149, 162. 

Questionable methods, 344. 
Quiet, 91, 140, 147. 

Reading, 44, 240. 

Reading apparatus, 44. 

Recesses, 118, 162, 256. 

Reciprocal method, 342. 

Recitation rooms, 80, 89. 

Records and reports, 367, 485, 493. 

Reference books, 55, 56, 296. 

Reformed spelling, 459. 

Regularity, 140, 144. 

Regulations, 13S, 474. 

Religion, 111, 210. 

Remuneration of teachers, 411. 

Reporting method, 342. 

Report of county superintendent, 3C9, 370. 

Reports of special cases, 182. 

Reproof, 160. 

Resignation, 87. 

Rights of teachers, pupils, and parents, 200. 

Ruinous errors, 314. 

Rules for study, 287. 

Scale of marking, 366. 
Schedule of oral work, 260, 267. 
Scholastic course in normal schools, S84. 



504 



INDEX. 



School apparatus, 42, 296, S09, 473. 

School architects, 28. 

School buildings, 2T, 4T1. 

School, college, and university, 222. 

School examinations, 860. 

School government, 123. 

School grounds, 21, 4T2. 

School hygiene, 63. 

School library, 54. 

School management, 15, 144. 

School organization, 81, 469, 490. 

School periods, 218, 229. 

School punishments, 69, 132, 162. 

School register, 36T. 

School regulations, 138. 

School studies, 229. 

School systems, 421, 467. 

School tactics, 90. 

School text-books, 57, 62. 

Science of human culture, 4, 388. 

Seating, 112. 

Secrets of success, 353. 

Secularization of schools, 111. 

Securing positions, 83. 

Self-confidence, 131. 

Self-control, 128. 

Self-government, 15, 123, 13S, 158. 

Self-made teacher, 390. 

Shade trees, 24. 

Shams, 51. 

Signals, 91. 

Size of classes, 101. 

Size of school buildings, 30. 

Skill in teaching, 82. 

"Sleep, 68, 71, 75. 

Socratic method, 332. 

Special school regulations, 140. 

Spelling reform, 455. 

Spirit and matter, 206. 

State board of education, 422. 

8tudy, 262, 287, 297. 

Suggestions, 14, 26, 201. 

Suitable grounds, 25. 

Supervision, 430, 463. 

Superintendent, 465. 

Suspension, 86, 168. 

System, 123. 

Teachers classify, 108. 

Teachers' qualifications, 82. 

Teachers 1 reports, 369. 

Teaching, 7, 15, 347. 

Teaching, compared with other profes- 
sions, 379. 

Teaching versus marking, 865, 448. 

Technical education, 460. 

Temperance, 74, 426. 

Temporary classification, 103. 

Text-books, 57. 
Characteristics, 57. 
Use and abuse, 59, 445. 
Adoption, 60. 

The school, 222, 465. 



The educational work, 4. 
Theology, 211. 
Thorough education, 235. 
Thought world, 208, 232, 240. 
Tinkering plan, 421. 
Tobacco, 74, 426. 
Topical Reviews : 

School apparatus. 43. 

School buildings, 41. 

School grounds, 26. 

School hygiene, 75. 

Organization, preparatory work, 89. 

School tactics, 99. 

Classification, 109. 

Elements of governing power, 137. 

School regulations, 14a. 

Enforcement of regulations, 153. 

Principles pertaining to school punish- 
ments, 159. 

Judicious and injudicious punishments, 
173. 

Art of securing attention, 807. 

Work for the little ones, 312. 

General class methods, 340. 
Topic method, 835. 
Township institutes, 405. 
Trained teachers, 890. 
Trouble, 73. 
Truth, 211. 

Ungraded schools, 102, 105. 
Uniformity, classification, 100. 
United recitations, 262. 
University, 224. 
Unprepared lessons, 298, 830. 
Unwise incentives, 806. 
Use and abuse of text-books, 59. 
Use of apparatus, 46. 

Valuable hints, 120. 

Valuable thoughts, text-books, 62. 

Value of different studies, 220. 

Value of programme, 278. 

Value of records and reports, 867. 

Value of school library, 55. 

Ventilation, 35, 64. 

Vigilance, 126. 

Vital educational principles, 419. 

Voice culture, 810. 

Welcome address, 114. 

What I saw in a country school, 119. 

What shall I teach ? 288. 

When shall we examine ? 862. 

Whispering, 14S, 184. 

Will power, 127, 149, 158. 

Window ventilation, 85, 65. 

Work for the little ones, 808. 

Work of the normal institute, 894. 

World of matter, 206. 

World of spirit, 206. 

Writing method, 341. 

Written examinations, 862, 875. 



THE END 



LEAp'12 



